Absenteeism Costs Due to COVID-19 and Their Predictors in Non-Hospitalized Patients in Sweden: A Poisson Regression Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Absenteeism Costs
2.3. Other Included Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Study Patients’ Characteristics
3.2. The Lost Productivity Cost (USD) Due to Absenteeism
3.3. The Predictors of the Higher Absenteeism Costs Due to COVID-19
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Number of Patients (Percent) |
---|---|
Gender | |
Male | 93 (26.6) |
Female | 257 (73.4) |
Age (years) | |
≤30 | 67 (19.1) |
31–40 | 83 (23.7) |
41–50 | 87 (24.9) |
>50 | 113 (32.3) |
Mean (minimum, maximum) | 43.46 (19.69) |
Median | 44 |
Marital status | |
Married/with partner | 238 (68.2) |
Single/divorced/widow(er) | 111 (31.8) |
Country of birth | |
Born in Sweden with both parents born in Sweden | 243 (70.2) |
Born in Sweden with one parent born in Sweden | 27 (7.8) |
Born in Sweden but parents not born in Sweden | 9 (2.6) |
Not born in Sweden and neither parent born in Sweden | 67 (19.4) |
Educational level | |
No university | 154 (44.1) |
University | 195 (55.9) |
Smoking status | |
Ever | 83 (23.9) |
Never | 264 (76.1) |
Snuff | |
Yes | 67 (19.5) |
No | 276 (80.5) |
BMI | |
Underweight (<18.5) | 5 (1.4) |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 180 (51.6) |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 114 (32.7) |
Obese (≥30.00) | 50 (14.3) |
Comorbidity | |
No | 177 (50.6) |
One | 106 (30.3) |
At least two | 67 (19.1) |
Self-reported severity of COVID-19 onset | |
Mild | 147 (42.0) |
Moderate | 137 (39.1) |
Severe | 66 (18.9) |
Pandemic wave | |
First | 305 (87.1) |
Second | 45 (12.9) |
Recovered equal to no symptoms at follow-up | |
Yes | 183 (52.3) |
No | 167 (47.7) |
Newly introduced treatment for depression/anxiety after COVID-19 | |
Yes | 17 (4.9) |
No | 327 (95.1) |
Occupation | |
Healthcare with patient contact | 237 (68.5) |
Healthcare with no patient contact | 39 (11.3) |
Other | 70 (20.2) |
Working (%) | |
<50 | 11 (3.1) |
50–80 | 30 (8.6) |
81–100 | 309 (88.3) |
Variables | Due to COVID-19 | Before Pandemic | p-Value 1 | p-Value 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SE) | Mean (SE) | |||
Gender | 0.724 | |||
Male | 1724.3 (609.6) | 1370.1 (637.3) | 0.295 | |
Female | 1973.5 (364.1) | 756.3 (183.9) | 0.001 | |
Age (years) | 0.452 | |||
≤30 | 893.9 (435.0) | 627.2 (383.5) | 0.310 | |
31–40 | 1955.3 (702.6) | 1191.8 (420.5) | 0.325 | |
41–50 | 2265.1 (656.3) | 510.8 (241.0) | 0.016 | |
>50 | 2199.4 (590.1) | 1207.1 (518.4) | 0.018 | |
Marital status | 0.570 | |||
Married or with partner | 2033.5 (426.9) | 1012 (294.1) | 0.013 | |
Single/divorced/widow(er) | 1651.0 (358.6) | 728.4 (262.3) | 0.001 | |
Country of birth | 0.574 | |||
Born in Sweden with both parents born in Sweden | 1812.2 (374.9) | 953.7 (278.2) | 0.013 | |
Born in Sweden with one parent born in Sweden | 1640.0 (943.7) | 393.6 (201.4) | 0.162 | |
Born in Sweden but parents not born in Sweden | 4508.0 (2499.4) | 2576.0 (2576.0) | 0.070 | |
Not born in Sweden and neither parent born in Sweden | 2133.9 (748.8) | 738.2 (370.9) | 0.087 | |
Educational level | 0.442 | |||
No university | 2182.9 (487.3) | 1028.7 (378.9) | 0.001 | |
University | 1698.0 (407.5) | 827.8 (248.6) | 0.055 | |
Smoking status | 0.530 | |||
Ever | 1571.2 (426.6) | 1094.0 (451.9) | 0.274 | |
Never | 2034.8 (391.7) | 874.9 (249.7) | 0.001 | |
Snuff | 0.398 | |||
Yes | 1384.1 (402.7) | 896.8 (450.6) | 0.368 | |
No | 2062.0 (383.3) | 948.2 (252.0) | 0.001 | |
BMI | 0.394 | |||
Underweight (≥18.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | - | |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 1775.5 (446.0) | 745.4 (304.8) | 0.008 | |
Overweight (25–29.9) | 1677.8 (416.1) | 933.8 (347.8) | 0.037 | |
Obese (≥30.0) | 3129.8 (1136.2) | 1584.2 (682.7) | 0.231 | |
Comorbidity | 0.032 | |||
No | 1574.8 (387.6) | 362.4 (146.8) | 0.001 | |
One | 1449.0 (515.9) | 598.7 (150.1) | 0.115 | |
At least two | 3575.6 (953.0) | 2898.0 (1006.0) | 0.413 | |
Pandemic wave | <0.0001 | |||
First | 1401.3 (214.1) | 693.9 (150.9) | 0.0005 | |
Second | 5323.7 (1882.0) | 2447.2 (1328.2) | 0.119 | |
Self-reported severity at COVID-19 onset | <0.000 | |||
Mild | 368.0 (94.3) | 525.1 (156.9) | 0.406 | |
Moderate | 1650.0 (447.9) | 1108.4 (433.5) | 0.060 | |
Severe | 5929.8 (1249.8) | 1405.1 (620.6) | 0.001 | |
Recover = no persistent symptoms at follow-up | <0.0001 | |||
Yes | 546.7 (141.1) | 590.7 (164.4) | 0.833 | |
No | 3389.7 (614.8) | 1279.5 (415.4) | 0.0002 | |
Newly introduced treatment for depression/anxiety after COVID-19 | <0.0001 | |||
Yes | 9489.5 (3072.9) | 5966.5 (3202.0) | 0.032 | |
No | 1537.9 (278.7) | 670.3 (152.5) | 0.004 | |
Occupation | 0.129 | |||
Healthcare with patient contact | 1756.0 (364.4) | 999.0 (235.9) | 0.048 | |
Healthcare workers with no patient contact | 569.7 (326.6) | 148.6 (75.6) | 0.225 | |
Other | 2856.6 (892.3) | 938.4 (724.1) | 0.003 | |
Working % | <0.0001 | |||
<50 | 11,240.7 (5725.7) | 4127.5 (2214.7) | 0.265 | |
50–80 | 2350.6 (1612.9) | 2898.0 (1771.0) | 0.495 | |
81–100 | 1530.5 (229.0) | 613.1 (152.0) | 0.0001 | |
All included patients | 1907.1 (312.2) | 919.4 (216.5) | 0.0008 | - |
Variables | Estimate | Standard Error | p-Value | 95% CI | IRR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | |||||
Female | Ref. | ||||
Male | 0.073 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (0.067, 0.079) | 1.075 |
Age | |||||
≤30 years | Ref. | ||||
31 to 40 years | 0.871 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | (0.861, 0.882) | 2.390 |
41 to 50 years | 1.042 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | (1.032, 1.052) | 2.836 |
>50 years | 0.857 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | (0.847, 0.867) | 2.356 |
Marital status | |||||
Married or with partner | Ref. | ||||
Single | −0.029 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (−0.035, −0.023) | 0.972 |
Country of birth | |||||
Born in Sweden with both parents born in Sweden | Ref. | ||||
Other | −0.598 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (−0.604, −0.592) | 0.550 |
Educational level | |||||
University | Ref. | ||||
No university | −0.077 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (−0.083, −0.071) | 0.926 |
Smoking status | |||||
Never | Ref. | ||||
Ever | −0.519 | 0.004 | <0.0001 | (−0.526, −0.511) | 0.595 |
BMI | |||||
Normal | Ref. | ||||
Other | −0.195 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (−0.201, −0.190) | 0.823 |
Comorbidity | |||||
No | Ref. | ||||
One comorbidity | −0.271 | 0.004 | <0.0001 | (−0.278, −0.264) | 0.762 |
At least two | 0.008 | 0.004 | 0.020 | (0.001, 0.015) | 1.008 |
Self-reported severity at COVID-19 onset | |||||
Mild | Ref. | ||||
Moderate | 1.102 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | (1.092, 1.112) | 3.011 |
Severe | 2.023 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | (2.013, 2.033) | 7.564 |
Pandemic wave | |||||
First | Ref. | ||||
Second | 1.077 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (1.071, 1.083) | 2.935 |
Recovered at 12-month follow−up | |||||
Yes | Ref. | ||||
No | 1.405 | 0.004 | <0.0001 | (1.397, 1.412) | 4.074 |
Newly introduced treatment for depression/anxiety after COVID-19 | |||||
Yes | Ref. | ||||
No | −1.439 | 0.004 | <0.0001 | (−1.446, −1.432) | 0.237 |
Occupation | |||||
Healthcare with patient contact | Ref. | ||||
Healthcare with no patient contact | −1.482 | 0.007 | <0.0001 | (−1.496, −1.468) | 0.227 |
Other | −0.692 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | (−0.698, −0.685) | 0.501 |
Constant | 5.237 | 0.012 | <0.0001 | (5.213, 5.260) | 188.027 |
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Share and Cite
Kisiel, M.A.; Lee, S.; Janols, H.; Faramarzi, A. Absenteeism Costs Due to COVID-19 and Their Predictors in Non-Hospitalized Patients in Sweden: A Poisson Regression Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 7052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20227052
Kisiel MA, Lee S, Janols H, Faramarzi A. Absenteeism Costs Due to COVID-19 and Their Predictors in Non-Hospitalized Patients in Sweden: A Poisson Regression Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(22):7052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20227052
Chicago/Turabian StyleKisiel, Marta A., Seika Lee, Helena Janols, and Ahmad Faramarzi. 2023. "Absenteeism Costs Due to COVID-19 and Their Predictors in Non-Hospitalized Patients in Sweden: A Poisson Regression Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 22: 7052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20227052