Next Article in Journal
Diffusion Path Identification of Public Opinion Involving Enterprise Green Technology Adoption: An Interpretive-Structural-Modeling-Based Approach
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Water and Fertilizer Management Practices on Methane Emissions from Paddy Soils: Synthesis and Perspective
Previous Article in Journal
Mercury Contamination: A Growing Threat to Riverine and Urban Communities in the Brazilian Amazon
Previous Article in Special Issue
Stabilization of Zinc in Agricultural Soil Originated from Commercial Organic Fertilizer by Natural Zeolite
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 19
Issue 5
10.3390/ijerph19052812
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Yield Variation Characteristics of Red Paddy Soil under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation and Its Influencing Factors

by
Jun Xie
1,2,†,
Feng Liang
1,2,†,
Junjie Xie
1,2,
Guanjie Jiang
1,2,
Xinping Zhang
1,2 and
Qin Zhang
1,2,*
1
Key Laboratory of Poyang Lake Watershed Agricultural Resources and Ecology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
2
College of Land Resource and Environment, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(5), 2812; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052812
Submission received: 11 January 2022 / Revised: 24 February 2022 / Accepted: 25 February 2022 / Published: 28 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle and Soil Remediation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Rice is an important food crop in China, fertilization measures significantly affect soil properties and ultimately change rice yield. Thus, examining the effects of long-term green manure cultivation on the rice yield and the driving factors on rice yield, plays a crucial role in maintaining food security. Based on the long-term green manure cultivation, the treatments included no fertilizer (CK), chemical fertilizer (NPK), chemical fertilizer + Chinese milk vetch (NPK + GM), chemical fertilizer + Chinese milk vetch + rice straws (NPK + GM + S), and chemical fertilizer + Chinese milk vetch + pig manure (NPK + GM + M) treatments. One-way repeated ANOVA was used to determine the effects of diverse fertilizer modes on temporal variations in rice yields. The redundancy analysis (RDA) was used to calculate the magnitudes of the effects of soil properties on rice yield. Compared with the CK treatment, four fertilizer treatments led to significantly increased double-season rice yields (116.40–124.49%), with no significant difference between four fertilizer treatments (p > 0.05). There were five soil properties accounting for 66.3% variation in rice yield (p < 0.05), with available potassium (AK) being the most influential factor (32.2% variation), whereas potential of hydrogen (pH), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and soil organic carbon (SOC) accounted for 15.3%, 10.5%, 5.1%, and 3.2% variation in rice yield (p < 0.05), respectively. Thus, SOC, TN, TP, AK, and pH were major factors affecting the double-season rice yield of red paddy soil under long-term green manure cultivation. However, the results suggested that the effect of green manure on soil fertility is limited by the relatively large amount of chemical fertilizer. The results reported herein can not only increase soil fertility and improve the soil ecological environment, but also enhance and stabilize the yields of double-season rice grown in the red paddy soil of southern China.

1. Introduction

Rice is the main source of nourishment for more than half of the Chinese population, so rice is considered an important food crop in China [1,2]. Rice is predominantly grown on the red soils of the southern region, particularly the Jiangxi Province. As a major rice-producing region in the south, the Jiangxi Province is ranked second and third in China in the rice cultivation area and total yield, respectively [2]. Of the 1.28 million km2 used to grow rice in southern China, 300,000 km2 (16%) are primarily composed of red paddy soil and produce 50% of China’s total rice yield [3,4]. Thus, the red paddy field is an important soil resource of China and plays a crucial role in maintaining food security [1,3,4].
China has abundant green manure resources, with more than 500 types of green manure and 3000 germplasms, it also has the world’s greatest green manure cultivation area of nearly 2 million hectares [5,6,7]. The Jiangxi Province is a traditional green manure-producing region, accounting for 20% of China’s green manure area, which is dominated by milk vetch-type manure, the Latin name of Chinese milk vetch is Astragalus sinicus Linn [8]. Under long-term non-fertilizer application conditions, the mean annual double-season rice yield in red and purple soil was about approximately 5–7 t·ha−1 [9,10,11,12,13,14]. The application of Chinese milk vetch with no chemical fertilizer had little effect on the mean annual double-season rice yields of yellow-brown and purple paddy soils. However, Chinese milk vetch combined with inorganic fertilizer raised the double-season rice production by approximately 80–100% in red and purple paddy soils [1,13,15,16]. Pig manure combining with NPK fertilizer and Chinese milk vetch raised the double-season rice production by approximately 90–110% in red paddy soil [1,11,12]. In general, the effect of long-term chemical fertilizer and green manure on the yield of double-season rice has been extensively studied. However, yield characteristics of paddy fields under different green manure cultivation modes are unclear.
There are many soil physic-chemical properties that affect rice yield, such as SOC, TN, TP, AK, pH, available nitrogen (AN) and available phosphorus (AP) [1,10,17,18]. However, these soil properties have different effects on rice yield [10,11,17,18]. Li et al. [16] found that AK, TP, SOC, AP, available zinc, and available manganese could explain 82.63% of the variation in rice yield under chemical fertilizer application, and the contribution of AK was the highest at 35.75%. Wu et al. [18] showed that AK, AP, and SOC can explain 99.74% of the variation in rice yield under the condition of no fertilizer and application of chemical fertilizer, among which AK contributed the most. Although there have been a lot of studies on the influence of soil physical and chemical properties on rice yield under the condition of no fertilizer and application of chemical fertilizer, the effect of soil properties on the rice yield under the long-term green manure fertilizer mode is still unknown.
Therefore, in order to provide a theoretical basis for high double-season rice yield and fertilizer application for red paddy soil, experiments were conducted under CK, NPK, NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S and NPK + GM + M application conditions. Our objectives were to (1) investigate the yield variation characteristics of double-season rice in the red paddy field under green manure cultivation modes and (2) determine the main factors affecting the yield of red paddy soil.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site

The experiments were performed at the experimental base netted farm in Jiangxi Agricultural University (28°76′78″ N, 115°83′61″ E). The initial topsoil (0–20 cm) properties are shown in Table 1, soil texture is clay loam. The climate at this site is subtropical humid, with the mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation, and sunshine hours being 17.1–17.8 °C, 1568–1655 mm, and 1772–1845 h. The site’s ≥ 0 °C cumulative temperature is 6256–6530 °C.

2.2. Experimental Design

The long-term experiment was started in 1981, and set up no fertilizer (CK), chemical fertilizer (NPK), NPK plus Chinese milk vetch (NPK + GM), NPK plus Chinese milk vetch and rice straw (NPK + GM + S), NPK plus Chinese milk vetch, and pig manure (NPK + GM + M). The experiments were performed in triplicates on 0.9 × 0.9 m2 micro-plots. The cropping system was double-season rice. The tested soil was derived from Quaternary red clay. This paper presents the rice yields and the soil’s physical-chemical characteristics determined within the period stretching from 1981 to 2009.
Early season rice was sown late in March, transplanted at the middle of April, then harvested at the begin of July. In total, 50 seedlings were grown in 25 stumps in every micro-plot area (2 seedlings per stump). The full growth season lasted around 100 days. As for late-season rice, it was sown at the end of June, transplanted at the end of July, and harvested in late October. Again, the seedlings in each micro-plot were grown in 25 stumps; however, each stump contained 4 seedlings. The full growth season lasted around 100 days.

2.3. Fertilizer Application

With the exception of CK, the four fertilization groups were all treated with the same amounts of chemical fertilizers. These chemical fertilizer amounts were increased as the study progressed (Table 2). The chemical fertilizers applied in our experiment included urea (N), calcium magnesium phosphate (P), and potassium chloride (K). The quantities of the chemical fertilizers were equally divided between the early and late seasons. Phosphorus fertilizer was applied in the seeding stage of rice only once, nitrogen and potassium fertilizer was applied in the seeding, tillering, and booting stage of rice in three times, and its ratio was 5:3:2, respectively.
The organic fertilizers are Chinese milk vetch, rice straw, and pig manure. Chinese milk vetch and rice straw was grown by the experimenter. Pig manure comes from surrounding farmer, and then composted by the experimenter. Fresh Chinese milk vetch is cut into small pieces to be used as early rice base fertilizer. The rice straws are cut finely and returned to the field, and the pig manure is returned to the field after composting. Rice straw and pig manure is the base fertilizer for late-season rice. The characteristics of Chinese milk vetch, rice straw, and pig manure are summarized in Table 3.

2.4. Rice Yield and Soil Sample Analysis

The rice crops were manually harvested during the maturation stage. After mechanical threshing, the rice was air-dried then weighed. The annual yields of different treatments were calculated by adding the quantities of rice produced in two seasons. The 0–20 cm soil samples were collected seven to ten days after the late rice harvest, and the sampling time is approximately from November 1st to 7th of each year. Five samples of the plow layer soil (0–20 cm) was collected from each plot, mixed into one composited sample. After collection, those samples were air-dried, ground and passed through 2 mm and 0.149 mm mesh sieves. The potassium dichromate volumetric method and Kjeldahl method was used to determine the SOC and TN, respectively. TP was determined by NaOH dissolution followed by molybdenum blue colorimetric assay, whereas TK was measured by NaOH dissolution followed by flame photometry. AN was measured using alkaline hydrolysis. AP was assessed via HCl-NH4F extraction followed by ammonium molybdate colorimetry, and AK was assessed via NH4OAC extraction followed by flame photometry. pH was determined using electrodes (water/soil ratio = 5:1) [19].

2.5. Data Analysis

One-way repeated ANOVA analyses were conducted using the SPSS Statistics 24 software (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) in order to assess the variations between different treatment groups in terms of rice yield and the soil factors (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the factor having significant effects on yield was identified by linear fitting, and the magnitudes of the effects of various factors were determined based on the redundancy analyses performed on Canoco 5. All graphs were plotted using Origin 8.5.

3. Results

3.1. Yield Variation Characteristics of Rice under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation

The annual rice yields in the five treatments showed similar trends of temporal variation, despite the fluctuations between different years. Between 1981 and 1994, the yields fluctuated slightly, but overall, a slowly decreasing trend was observed. The mean annual rice yields slowly raised between 1994 and 2004, and in the period of 2004–2009, they fluctuated greatly. The 2009 yields were found to be nearly the same as those recorded at the beginning of the study for all fertilizer treatments; however, the yield of the CK treatment had a decreased trend over the years (Figure 1).
The one-way repeated ANOVA results indicate that the treatment, year, and interaction of treatment × year all had a significant effect on double-season rice yield (p < 0.01) (Figure 2). Compared with the CK treatment, fertilization treatment can significantly raise the yield of rice, but there was no significance between NPK treatment and chemical fertilizer combined with green manure treatments (p < 0.05). The mean annual yield was 4.94 t·ha−1 under CK conditions and was 10.57–11.09 t·ha−1 for the NPK, NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S, and NPK + GM + M groups (Figure 2). Compared with the CK, NPK, NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S, and NPK + GM + M treatments increased mean annual rice yield by 113.97%, 116.40%, 124.49%, and 121.66%, respectively. This shows that chemical fertilizer combined with green manure can significantly increase the double-season rice yield of red paddy soil.

3.2. Factors Affecting Rice Yield

Correlation assessments of different soil properties and rice yield show that the yield was positively correlated with SOC, TN, TP, AN, AP, AK, and pH (N = 236, p < 0.01), and the correlation coefficients are 0.31, 0.37, 0.54, 0.22, 0.41, 0.57, and 0.55, respectively (Table 4).

3.3. Redundancy Analysis of the Effects of Soil Properties on Rice Yield

Redundancy analysis indicates that AK, pH, TN, TP, and SOC explained 32.2%, 15.3%, 10.5%, 5.1%, and 3.2% variation in rice yield, respectively (p < 0.05), for a total of 66.3% (Table 5). Therefore, AK, pH, TN, TP, and SOC may be considered as major factors affecting the double-season rice yield of red paddy soil.
One-way repeated ANOVA showed that the fertilizer treatment, year, and the interaction of fertilizer treatment * year had extremely significant effects on soil AK, SOC, TN, TP, and pH (p < 0.01) (Figure 3). Compared with the CK treatment, four fertilizer treatments including NPK, NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S, and NPK + GM + M could significantly increase soil AK by 74.05–100.26%, among which the NPK treatment has the most significant effect; these fertilization treatments can significantly increase SOC by 11.53–36.97%, NPK+GM+M is the most significant treatment; fertilization treatments can significantly increase TN by 9.93–33.33%, among which NPK + GM + S and NPK + GM + M treatments has the best effect; fertilization treatments can significantly increase TP content by 15.87–22.22%, NPK and NPK + GM + S treatments has the best effect; fertilization treatments could significantly increase pH about 0.15–0.40 units, with NPK, NPK + GM + S and NPK + GM + M treatments having the most significant effects. Therefore, fertilization mainly increases rice yield by soil properties.

4. Discussion

4.1. Variation Characteristics of Double-Season Rice Yield under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation

The results presented in this study clearly demonstrate that different modes of long-term green manure cultivation (NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S, and NPK + GM + M) could appreciably enhance the double-season rice yield of red paddy soil by 113.97%, 116.40%, 124.49%, and 121.66% (p < 0.01), respectively. This is consistent with several studies [12,13,20], they show that compared with the CK treatment, the NPK, NPK + GM, NPK + GM + S, or NPK + GM + M increased the mean annual rice yield by 39.19–80.30%. NPK + GM treatment increases the yield by promoting rice nutrition growth and augmenting the number of productive ears and panicles [14,21]. The addition of rice straw to NPK+GM further enhances rice production by increasing fertilizer utilization and providing more nutrients, particularly potassium, that may be readily absorbed and used by the rice [14,16,21]. NPK + GM + M improves the chemical characteristics and biotic environment of the soil, thereby facilitating crop growth and raising the yield [12,20].
Notably, the analyses performed herein indicate that there were no significant differences between the combined inorganic fertilizer plus Chinese milk vetch treatments and pure inorganic fertilizer (NPK) on yield. Several studies [3,12,14] reported similar conclusions, wherein they showed that combinations of chemical and organic fertilizers do not enhance rice yields more than chemical fertilizers alone. This may be attributed to the relatively high proportion of chemical fertilizers used in the combined treatments, which masks the benefits of organic fertilizers and undermines their persistent and slow-acting effects [12,22]. In our research, chemical fertilizer used in combination with green manure was increased over the years. Specifically, the amounts of N, P, and K fertilizers were increased from 220 to 300, from 112.5 to 250, and from 220 to 300 kg·ha−1, respectively (Table 2). Such excessive amounts of chemicals overpower the effects of organic fertilizers, which is the main reason for the lack of a significant difference between the yields of NPK and NPK + GM, NPK + GM + M, and NPK + GM + S groups. Consequently, we suggest the amount of inorganic fertilizer to cultivate rice in the red soils of southern China should be moderately reduced. It should be noted that some previous studies have clearly shown that combined fertilizers (chemical and organic) exhibit a superior effect in enhancing rice yields than pure chemical fertilizers [14,23]. Other research has found the difference in soil type may have some effect on yield, it could lead to no significance between the inorganic fertilizer plus organic fertilizer treatments [1,22,23]. This indicates that in addition to the amount of fertilizer, the soil type and characteristics are important factors affecting rice yield.

4.2. Effects of Soil Physical and Chemical Properties on Rice Yield

In our study, AK was the soil parameter that had the greatest influence on double-season rice yield as it accounted for 32.2% variation in yield. Meanwhile, one-way repeated ANOVA analyses indicated that there was significant difference in the AK levels among all treatments (Figure 3a), which indirectly demonstrates that AK is the key factor affecting crop yield. Other studies also show that AK can affect single-season rice, double-season rice, and wheat yields, with a contribution of up to 35.75% variance [15,18]. This may be due to the following reasons. First, red soil is deficient in potassium [18]. Second, decomposition of Chinese milk vetch can release a large amount of potassium [15,16], whereas rice straws contain large quantities of ionic potassium that can easily dissolve in water and enter the soil [1,14,16]. Third, potassium promotes photosynthesis and transportation of assimilated substances in rice, which ultimately favors crop growth and development [23].
TN explained a 10.5% variation in double-season rice yield, suggesting that TN is a main factor affecting double-season rice yield. One-way repeated measures ANOVA showed that all fertilizer treatment significantly increased the TN levels (Figure 3b), which indirectly demonstrates that TN is a factor affecting double-season rice yield. It has been reported that nitrogen has an important role in the crop growth cycle, so nitrogen could affect the rice yield [22,24]. Chinese milk vetch can improve soil nitrogen, and abundant nitrogen can significantly enhance the amount of effective panicle and the 1000 grain weight of rice crops. Concurrently, large amounts of nitrogen will significantly affect the physiological characteristics of crops, such as photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content, promoting photosynthesis and accumulating the dry matter, thereby resulting in higher crop yield [22,24].
With a contribution of 5.1% variance, TP was another key factor affecting yield. All fertilizer treatments tested increased the TP contents in this study, albeit by varying degrees (Figure 3c), which further indicates that rice yields are affected by TP. Previously, studies [15] reported that TP could explain 15.14% of rice yield variance. Such great influence is attributed to the effect of combined fertilizer treatments in increasing acid phosphorus and rice root enzyme activities, which increases phosphorus content and activity and promotes phosphorus absorption and accumulation in rice [21,25,26,27]. Phosphorus also improves nutrient absorption and transportation and significantly enhances rice tillering, root system growth, ear nutrient accumulation, and plant dry weight, which ultimately increases the rice yield [23,28].
SOC explained 3.2% variation in rice yield, suggesting that SOC is a main factor affecting double-season rice yield. All fertilizer treatments significantly increased SOC levels (Figure 3d), which indirectly supports our conclusion. Many studies show a significant correlation between SOC and rice yield [22,29]. Adding Chinese milk vetch, straws, and pig manure introduces a lot of exogenous organic material into soil, with degradation by various enzymes and microorganisms, soil organic carbon content will significantly increase [22,30,31,32]. High levels of SOC promote soil stability and a uniform distribution of aggregate and SOC mineralization constitutes an essential source of mineral nutrients, which in turn are important to rice growth [31,32]. Increased SOC content enhances the soil’s biotic environment and fertility, thereby increasing the amount of available nutrients, which promotes normal growth and raises the crop yield [29,33].
Soil pH explained 15.3% variation in rice yield, suggesting that pH is a key factor influencing rice yield. Furthermore, one-way repeated ANOVA analyses indicated that the pH of all treatments was significantly different (Figure 3e). Studies have shown that pH is strongly correlated with yield, so it is a key limiting factor [34,35]. Decomposition of Chinese milk vetch plus straws or pig manure increases organic matter content in fields, and dissociation of functional groups (protonation of carbonyl groups) and release of basic cations from the organic matter increase soil pH [34,36,37]. At the same time, increasing acid soil pH can promote microbial activity and abundance, and elevate the content of available nutrient content [36,37]. Therefore, the pH can affect the double-season rice yield. When the soil pH is relatively low, it will cause adverse effects such as aluminum toxicity, reducing nutrient utilization, affecting the carbon and nitrogen cycle process, and reducing beneficial microorganisms. Improving acid soil pH is conducive to improving the soil ecological environment and food security.

5. Conclusions

The long-term green manure cultivation mode (NPK + GM, NPK + GM + M, and NPK + GM + S) can significantly increase the yield of double-season rice in red paddy soils, which facilitates stable and high rice yield. However, the amount of chemicals used should be moderately decreased. Soil properties AK, pH, SOC, TN, and TP are main factors affecting double-season rice yield in red paddy soil. Therefore, this study has a positive effect on improving the soil ecological environment and increasing rice yield, it not only clarified the factors affecting the yield of red paddy soil, but also provided a theoretical basis for stable and high yield of double-season rice and fertilization in the red soil region in China.

Author Contributions

Methodology, F.L. and Q.Z.; experiments, J.X. (Jun Xie), J.X. (Junjie Xie) and X.Z.; data analysis, J.X. (Jun Xie) and F.L.; software, J.X. (Jun Xie); writing—original draft preparation, J.X. (Jun Xie); writing—review and editing, J.X. and F.L.; principal investigation, Q.Z. and G.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the national key research and development plan (2017YFD0301601-01) and Jiangxi Science and Jiangxi Science and Technology Department Youth Fund Project (20161BAB213081).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

We give thanks to Zhihong Lu for guiding our experiment. Additionally, we also wish to thank Tianna Hong, Guangxia Xu, and Yafen Gan, who were involved in experiments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Bi, L.D.; Zhang, B.; Liu, G.R.; Li, Z.Z.; Liu, Y.R.; Ye, C.; Yu, X.C.; Lai, T.; Zhang, J.G.; Yin, J.M.; et al. Long-term effects of organic amendments on the rice yields for double rice cropping systems in subtropical China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2008, 129, 534–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Guan, S.H.; Zeng, X.J.; Xu, J.J.; Huang, R.H.; Fu, Y.; Li, F.; Wang, Y.; Zhou, J. Status and countermeasures of rice industry development in Jiangxi Province. J. South. Agric. Sci. 2017, 48, 189–196. [Google Scholar]
  3. Hu, X.; Liu, H.Y.; Xu, C.Y.; Huang, X.M.; Jiang, M.; Zhuang, H.Y.; Huang, L.F. Effect of digestate and straw combined application on maintaining rice production and paddy environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Cai, S.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, H.; Xu, S.; Zhang, D.; Lv, W. Rice rotation system affects the spatial dynamics of the diazotrophic community in paddy soil of the Yangtze delta, China. Eurasian Soil Sci. 2019, 52, 696–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Cao, W.D.; Bao, X.G.; Xu, C.X.; Nie, J.; Gao, Y.J.; Geng, M.J. Review and prospect of 60 years of green manure research in china. J. Plant Nutr. Fertil. 2017, 23, 1450–1461. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  6. Li, Z.H.; Lian, X.J.; Wang, W.; Zhao, T.K.; Li, H.J. Research progress of green manure in China. Grass Sci. 2013, 30, 1135–1140. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  7. Ma, W.P.; Su, B.X.; Li, Z.J.; Cao, W.D.; Sun, W.Y.; Wang, L.Q. Screening and evaluation of green manure germplasm resources in huanghuaihai region. North China Agric. J. 2010, 25, 75–79. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  8. Huang, G.Q. Research on the technology of cyclical production of farmland in the hilly areas of the south of the Yangtze River I. Development of green manure production in Jiangxi. Farming Cultiv. 2008, 2, 1–2. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  9. Cheng, X.Z.; Hu, L.B.; Lu, B.; Hu, J.L. Effects of ziyunying green manure overturn on soil fertility, rice yield and economic benefits in huangchuan region. Chin. Agric. Sci. Bull. 2018, 34, 74–80. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  10. Li, Y.; Feng, Y.H.; Wang, Z.Y.; Wu, B. The relationship between soil nutrients and rice yield based on principal component regression. Guizhou Agric. Sci. 2013, 41, 50–54. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  11. Zhang, M.; Yao, Y.L.; Tian, Y.U.; Ceng, K.; Zhao, M.; Yin, B. Increasing yield and N use efficiency with organic fertilizer in Chinese intensive rice cropping systems. Field Crops Res. 2018, 227, 102–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Chen, D.M.; Yuan, L.Y.; Liu, Y.R.; Ji, J.H.; Hou, H.Q. Long-term application of manures plus chemical fertilizers sustained high rice yield and improved soil chemical and bacterial properties. Eur. J. Agron. 2017, 90, 34–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Mi, W.H.; Sun, Y.; Xia, S.Q.; Zhao, H.T.; Mi, W.T.; Brookes, C.P.; Liu, Y.L.; Wu, L.H. Effect of inorganic fertilizers with organic amendments on soil chemical properties and rice yield in a low-productivity paddy soil. Geoderma 2018, 320, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Zhou, X.; Lu, Y.H.; Liao, Y.L.; Zhu, Q.D.; Cheng, H.D.; Nie, X.; Cao, W.D.; Nie, J. Substitution of chemical fertilizer by Chinese milk vetch improves the sustainability of yield and accumulation of soil organic carbon in a double-rice cropping system. J. Integr. Agric. 2019, 18, 2381–2392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Li, Z.P.; Liu, M.; Wu, X.C.; Han, F.X.; Zhang, T. Effects of long-term chemical fertilization and organic amendments on dynamics of soil organic C and total N in paddy soil derived from barren land in subtropical China. Soil Tillage Res. 2010, 106, 268–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Li, T.; Gao, J.S.; Bai, L.Y.; Wang, Y.N.; Huang, J.H.; Kumar, M.; Zeng, X.B. Influence of green manure and rice straw management on soil organic carbon, enzyme activities, and rice yield in red paddy soil. Soil Tillage Res. 2019, 195, 104428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Sarker, J.R.; Singh, B.P.; Dougherty, W.J.; Fang, Y.Y.; Badgery, W.; Hoyle, F.C.; Dalal, R.C.; Cowie, A.L. Impact of agricultural management practices on the nutrient supply potential of soil organic matter under long-term farming system. Soil Tillage Res. 2018, 175, 71–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Wu, H.L.; Wang, S.C.; Yan, Z.H. Features of typical paddy soils in China in recent 30 years. J. Plant Nutr. Fertil. 2018, 24, 1416–1424. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  19. Lu, R.K. Agrochemical Analysis Methods for Soil; China Agricultural Science and Technology Press: Beijing, China, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  20. Bi, Q.F.; Li, K.J.; Zheng, B.X.; Liu, X.P.; Li, H.Z.; Jin, B.J.; Ding, K.; Yang, X.R.; Lin, X.Y.; Zhu, Y.G. Partial replacement of inorganic phosphorus (P) by organic manure reshapes phosphate mobilizing bacterial community and promotes P bio-availability in a paddy soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 703, 134977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zhou, C.H.; Zhao, Z.K.; Pan, X.H.; Huang, S.; Tan, S.X.M.; Wu, J.F.; Shi, Q.H. Integratio of growing milk vetch in winter and reducing nitrogen fertilizer application can improve rice yield in double-rice cropping system. Rice Sci. 2016, 23, 132–143. [Google Scholar]
  22. Zhang, J.; Balkovič, J.; Azevedo, L.B.; Skalský, B.; Bouwman, A.F.; Xu, G.; Wang, J.Z.; Xu, M.G.; Yu, C.Q. Analyzing and modelling the effect of long-term fertilizer management on crop yield and soil organic carbon in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 627, 361–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Zhou, G.P.; Xu, Z.J.; Cao, W.; Xu, C.; Bai, J.; Zeng, N. Co-incorporation of high rice stubble and chinese milk vetch improving soil fertility and yield of rice. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2017, 33, 157–163. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  24. Deng, M.H.; Shi, X.J.; Tian, Y.H.; Yin, B.; Zhang, S.L.; Zhu, Z.L.; Kimura, S.D. Optimizing nitrogen fertilizer application for rice production in the Taihu Lake region, China. Pedosphere 2012, 22, 48–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Yang, Y.J.; Zhang, H.P.; Qian, X.Q.; Duan, J.N.; Wang, G.L. Excessive application of pig manure increases the risk of P loss in calcic cinnamon soil in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 609, 102–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Piotrowska, A.; Wilczewski, E. Effects of catch crops cultivated for green manure and mineral nitrogen fertilization on soil enzyme activities and chemical properties. Geoderma 2012, 189–190, 72–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Liang, X.Q.; Jin, Y.; He, M.M.; Liu, Y.; Hua, G.F.; Wang, S.; Tian, G.M. Composition of phosphorus species and phosphatase activities in a paddy soil treated with manure at varying rates. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2017, 237, 173–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Dissanayaka, D.M.S.B.; Nishida, S.; Tawaraya, K.; Wasaki, J. Organ-specific allocation pattern of acquired phosphorus and dry matter in two rice genotypes with contrasting tolerance to phosphorus deficiency. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2018, 64, 282–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Jiang, G.Y.; Xu, M.G.; He, X.H.; Zhang, W.J.; Huang, S.M.; Yang, X.Y.; Peng, H.P.; Liu, C.; Shirato, Y.; Iizumi, T.; et al. Soil organic carbon sequestration in upland soils of northern China under variable fertilizer management and climate change scenarios. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 2014, 28, 319–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Yi, Q.; Fan, X.L.; Tang, S.H.; Huang, Q.V.; Farag, M.M.; Zhang, M.; Pang, Y.W. Short-term changes in chemical and microbial characteristics of paddy soil in response to consecutive addition of organic ameliorants in a rice–rice–vegetable rotation system. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2019, 65, 393–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Gao, S.J.; Gao, J.S.; Cao, W.D.; Zou, C.Q.; Huang, J.; Dou, F.G. Effects of long-term green manure application on the content and structure of dissolved organic matter in red paddy soil. J. Integr. Agric. 2018, 17, 1852–1860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Yang, S.; Chen, X.; Jiang, Z.; Ding, J.; Sun, X.; Xu, J.Z. Effects of biochar application on soil organic carbon composition and enzyme activity in paddy soil under water-saving irrigation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Wei, W.L.; Yan, Y.; Cao, J.; Christie, P.; Zhang, F.S.; Fan, M.H. Effects of combined application of organic amendments and fertilizers on crop yield and soil organic matter: An integrated analysis of long-term experiments. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2016, 225, 86–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Zhang, H.M.; Wang, B.R.; Xu, M.G.; Fan, T.L. Crop yield and soil responses to long-term fertilization on a red soil in southern China. Pedosphere 2009, 19, 199–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Zhang, Y.Z.; Zhang, S.Q.; Wang, R.Z.; Cai, J.P.; Zhang, Y.G.; Li, H.; Huang, S.M.; Jiang, Y. Impacts of fertilization practices on pH and the pH buffering capacity of calcareous soil. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2016, 62, 432–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Shi, R.Y.; Liu, Z.D.; Li, Y.; Jiang, T.M.; Xu, M.G.; Li, J.Y.; Xu, R.K. Mechanisms for increasing soil resistance to acidification by long-term manure application. Soil Tillage Res. 2019, 185, 77–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Cai, Z.J.; Wang, B.R.; Xu, M.G.; Zhang, H.M.; He, X.H.; Zhang, L.; Gao, S.D. Intensified soil acidification from chemical N fertilization and prevention by manure in an 18-year field experiment in the red soil of southern China. J. Soils Sediments 2015, 15, 260–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ijerph 19 02812 g001 550
Figure 1. Profiles of temporal variation in double-season rice yield.
Figure 1. Profiles of temporal variation in double-season rice yield.
Ijerph 19 02812 g001
Ijerph 19 02812 g002 550
Figure 2. Effects of different treatments on rice yield.
Figure 2. Effects of different treatments on rice yield.
Ijerph 19 02812 g002
Ijerph 19 02812 g003 550
Figure 3. Effects of different treatments on the soil factors influencing the rice yield. The subfigure (a–e) represent the order of soil AK, SOC, TN, TP, pH, respectively. Different letters (a–c) indicates significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments.
Figure 3. Effects of different treatments on the soil factors influencing the rice yield. The subfigure (a–e) represent the order of soil AK, SOC, TN, TP, pH, respectively. Different letters (a–c) indicates significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments.
Ijerph 19 02812 g003
Table
Table 1. Initial physical and chemical properties of the 0–20 cm soil.
Table 1. Initial physical and chemical properties of the 0–20 cm soil.
Soil TypeSoil Parent MaterialpHSOC
(g·kg−1)		TN
(g·kg−1)		AN
(mg·kg−1)		AP
(mg·kg−1)		AK
(mg·kg−1)
Red soilQuaternary red earth6.518.91.890.020.887.0
Table
Table 2. Amount of fertilizer applied yearly (kg·ha−1).
Table 2. Amount of fertilizer applied yearly (kg·ha−1).
TreatmentChinese Milk VetchRice Straw.Pig Manure1981–1986
N-P2O5
-K2O		1987–1992
N-P2O5
-K2O		1993–2003
N-P2O5
-K2O		2004–2009
N-P2O5
-K2O
CK0000000
NPK000225-112.5-225240-120-240270-135-270300-150-300
NPK + GM22,50000225-112.5-225240-120-240270-135-270300-150-300
NPK + GM + S22,50030000225-112.5-225240-120-240270-135-270300-150-300
NPK + GM + M22,500015,000225-112.5-225240-120-240270-135-270300-150-300
Table
Table 3. The characteristics of Chinese milk vetch, rice straw, and pig manure (fresh).
Table 3. The characteristics of Chinese milk vetch, rice straw, and pig manure (fresh).
FertilizerN
(%)		P
(%)		K
(%)
Chinese milk vetch0.37–0.430.04–0.050.24–0.29
Rice straw0.29–0.320.04–0.050.62–0.72
Pig manure0.52–0.570.23–0.260.28–0.31
Table
Table 4. Correlation between rice yield and influencing factors (N = 236).
Table 4. Correlation between rice yield and influencing factors (N = 236).
YieldSOCTNTPTKANAPAKpH
Yield1.00
SOC0.31 **1.00
TN0.37 **0.79 **1.000
TP0.54 **−0.34 **−0.21 **1.00
TK0.08−0.63 **−0.44 **0.58 **1.00
AN0.22 **0.70 **0.79 **−0.20 **−0.32 **1.00
AP0.41 **0.16 **0.29 **0.24 **−0.04 **0.24 **1.00
AK0.57 **0.16 **0.24 **0.31 **0.02 **0.120.45 **1.00
pH0.55 **−0.17 **−0.090.77 **0.36 **−0.180.33 **0.31 **1.00
** p < 0.01.
Table
Table 5. The redundancy analysis between rice yield and soil properties.
Table 5. The redundancy analysis between rice yield and soil properties.
IndicatorExplains%pseudo-FP(adj)
AK32.21110.02 *
pH15.367.80.02 *
TN10.557.90.02 *
TP5.132.20.02 *
SOC3.221.60.02 *
Total66.3
P(adj), Significant value after adjustment. * means p < 0.05.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Xie, J.; Liang, F.; Xie, J.; Jiang, G.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, Q. Yield Variation Characteristics of Red Paddy Soil under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation and Its Influencing Factors. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052812

AMA Style

Xie J, Liang F, Xie J, Jiang G, Zhang X, Zhang Q. Yield Variation Characteristics of Red Paddy Soil under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation and Its Influencing Factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(5):2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052812

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xie, Jun, Feng Liang, Junjie Xie, Guanjie Jiang, Xinping Zhang, and Qin Zhang. 2022. "Yield Variation Characteristics of Red Paddy Soil under Long-Term Green Manure Cultivation and Its Influencing Factors" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 5: 2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052812

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop