Habituation of Fear—Israeli-Jewish Population during Protracted Belligerence
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Settings
1.2. Military Conflicts and Their Psychological Implications
1.3. Fears during Armed Conflict and the COR Theory
1.4. Vulnerability and Demographic Variables
1.5. Research Questions and Hypothesis
- 1.
- What is the effect of LIC on the fear level of Israeli-Jews during the conflict?
- 2.
- Can we identify a change in fear level trend while LIC events accumulate?
- 3.
- Which Demographic and socio-economic characteristics are associated with high fear levels during LIC?
2. Methods
2.1. Population, Data Collection, and Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Analytic Plan
3. Results
3.1. The Effect of LIC on Fear Level of Israeli Jews during Conflict
3.2. Changes and Trends in Fear Level along the Entire Period
3.3. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics and LIC
3.4. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics during and between Armed Conflicts
3.4.1. The “Fearful” Group
3.4.2. Fear of Physical Injury
3.4.3. Fear of the Future
4. Summary and Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Date | n | Military Context |
---|---|---|
April 2002 | 1326 | Operation “Defensive Shield” |
May 2002, August 2002, February 2003 | 1481 | Routine |
March 2003 | 1232 | Second Gulf War |
August 2003, January 2004, May 2004, June 2004, September 2004, January 2005, May 2005 | 2823 | Routine |
July–August 2005 (Before, during and after the “disengagement” from the Gaza Strip) | 2371 | Routine |
January 2006 | 591 | Routine |
June 2006 | 1061 | Operation “Summer Rains” |
July–August 2006 | 4369 | Second Lebanon War |
August (end) 2006, January 2007, May 2007, August 2007, August 2008 | 2265 | Routine |
December 2008–January 2009 | 1220 | Operation “Cast Lead” |
December 2009, October 2010, October 2011 | 2666 | Routine |
November 2011 | 873 | Operation “Pillar of defense” |
May 2013 | 1235 | Routine |
July–August 2014 | 4281 | Operation “Protective Edge” |
October 2015–May 2019, 14 surveys conducted during this period | 9396 | Routine |
Total participants during Routine | 22,828 | |
Total participants during LIC | 14,362 | |
Total participants in all surveys | 37,190 |
During Routine | During Military Conflict | During the Second Lebanon War | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | n | 95% CI | % | n | 95% CI | % | n | 95% CI | |
“I am afraid of the future” (% responded “strongly agree” or “agree”) | 47% | 19,223 | 47%, 48% | 48% | 14,107 | 48%, 49% | 51% | 4108 | 49%, 52% |
“I am afraid of being physically injured as a result of the security situation” (% responded “strongly agree” or “agree”) | 30% | 9370 | 29%, 31% | 23% | 11,046 | 22%, 24% | 24% | 2294 | 23%, 26% |
Fearful group (% responded “strongly agree” for both questions) | 3.2% | 20,826 | 2.9%, 3.5% | 4.9% | 13,204 | 4.5%, 5.3% | 3.5% | 3775 | 3.0%, 4.0% |
Covariate | Levels of Covariate | Fearful Index, All (N = 18,595) | Afraid of the Future, All (N = 20,307) | Afraid of Physical Injury, All (N = 14,008) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
Gender | Female | 11,233 | 0.000 | 2.079 | (1.797,2.406) | 12,490 | 0.000 | 2.217 | (2.095, 2.346) | 8681 | 0.000 | 1.709 | (1.581, 1.848) |
Age | Age | 0.068 | 0.001 | 0.000 | |||||||||
18–24 | 2418 | 0.162 | 1.201 | (0.929, 1.552) | 2619 | 0.320 | 1.051 | (0.953, 1.158) | 1697 | 0.000 | 1.463 | (1.274, 1.681) | |
25–34 | 2841 | 0.009 | 1.415 | (1.090, 1.837) | 3065 | 0.007 | 1.152 | (1.039, 1.276) | 2223 | 0.000 | 1.446 | (1.250, 1.671) | |
35–44 | 3829 | 0.088 | 1.271 | (0.965, 1.674) | 4239 | 0.000 | 1.270 | (1.140, 1.415) | 2767 | 0.000 | 1.357 | (1.156, 1.594) | |
45–54 | 3664 | 0.015 | 1.368 | (1.061, 1.762) | 3995 | 0.002 | 1.176 | (1.064, 1.301) | 2868 | 0.000 | 1.324 | (1.150, 1.524) | |
55–64 | 2860 | 0.009 | 1.423 | (1.094, 1.851) | 3115 | 0.135 | 1.084 | (0.975, 1.205) | 2327 | 0.019 | 1.192 | (1.029, 1.382) | |
Parenthood | Parents | 5837 | 0.015 | 1.263 | (1.047, 1.523) | 6297 | 0.196 | 1.053 | (0.974, 1.139) | 4704 | 0.030 | 1.129 | (1.012, 1.261) |
faith | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||||||
Ultra-orthodox | 940 | 0.011 | 0.641 | (0.454, 0.904) | 1017 | 0.000 | 0.673 | (0.589, 0.769) | 661 | 0.000 | 0.697 | (0.576, 0.844) | |
Religious | 2114 | 0.005 | 0.696 | (0.539, 0.898) | 2275 | 0.000 | 0.811 | (0.740, 0.889) | 1461 | 0.026 | 0.860 | (0.754, 0.982) | |
Traditional | 4813 | 0.000 | 1.386 | (1.190, 1.614) | 5343 | 0.000 | 1.135 | (1.061, 0.851) | 3722 | 0.000 | 1.294 | (1.184, 1.414) | |
Education | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||||||
Non Academic | 8746 | 0.212 | 1.124 | (0.935, 1.351) | 9674 | 0.000 | 0.831 | (0.769, 0.898) | 6444 | 0.000 | 0.743 | (0.673, 0.820) | |
Academic | 6471 | 0.013 | 0.768 | (0.624, 0.945) | 6986 | 0.000 | 0.783 | (0.721, 0.851) | 4837 | 0.000 | 0.585 | (0.525, 0.652) | |
Income | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.000 | ||||||||||
Low | 3642 | 0.000 | 1.535 | (1.265, 1.861) | 4045 | 0.002 | 1.142 | (1.049, 1.244) | 2644 | 0.000 | 1.436 | (1.284, 1.607) | |
Medium-High | 8308 | 0.628 | 0.957 | (0.802, 1.143) | 9039 | 0.976 | 1.001 | (0.933, 1.071) | 6218 | 0.612 | 1.025 | (0.933, 1.126) | |
High | 1885 | 0.664 | 0.940 | (0.710, 1.244) | 2091 | 0.447 | 0.960 | (0.864, 1.067) | 1332 | 0.002 | 0.775 | (0.661, 0.908) | |
constant | 0.000 | 0.021 | 0.000 | 0.670 | 0.000 | 0.243 |
Covariate | Levels of Covariate | During Routine (N = 7566) | During LICs (N = 11,029) | During the Second Lebanon War (N = 3449) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
Gender | Female | 4373 | 0.000 | 1.838 | (1.476, 2.288) | 6860 | 0.000 | 2.278 | (1.89, 2.775) | 1441 | 0.000 | 2.134 | (1.453, 3.133) |
Age | Age | 0.061 | 0.225 | 0.275 | |||||||||
18–24 | 1216 | 0.057 | 1.467 | (0.988, 2.177) | 1202 | 0.900 | 0.978 | (0.688, 1.390) | 424 | 0.702 | 1.152 | (0.558, 2.376) | |
25–34 | 1256 | 0.079 | 1.454 | (0.958, 2.207) | 1585 | 0.061 | 1.383 | (0.985, 1.943) | 567 | 0.266 | 1.503 | (0.733, 3.081) | |
35–44 | 1658 | 0.733 | 1.080 | (0.693, 1.685) | 2171 | 0.032 | 1.484 | (1.036, 2.128) | 675 | 0.051 | 2.104 | (0.996, 4.445) | |
45–54 | 1385 | 0.064 | 1.483 | (0.978, 2.248) | 2279 | 0.108 | 1.300 | (0.944, 1.791) | 730 | 0.120 | 1.719 | (0.868, 3.404) | |
55–64 | 909 | 0.013 | 1.753 | (1.127, 2.728) | 1951 | 0.252 | 1.211 | (0.872, 1.682) | 610 | 0.896 | 0.949 | (0.435, 2.069) | |
Parent-hood | Parents | 2260 | 0.028 | 1.373 | (1.034, 1.823) | 3577 | 0.530 | 1.086 | (0.840, 1.404) | 1151 | 0.419 | 0.816 | (0.498, 2.180) |
faith Education | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.382 | ||||||||||
Ultra-orthodox | 360 | 0.020 | 0.471 | (0.250, 0.888) | 580 | 0.243 | 0.780 | (0.514, 1.183) | 164 | 0.954 | 1.022 | (0.479, 2.180) | |
Religious | 922 | 0.005 | 0.547 | (0.358, 0.836) | 1192 | 0.280 | 0.838 | (0.607, 1.155) | 383 | 0.093 | 0.532 | (0.255, 1.112) | |
Traditional | 1899 | 0.005 | 1.400 | (1.108, 1.768) | 2914 | 0.002 | 1.383 | (1.131, 1.692) | 878 | 0.931 | 1.019 | (0.669, 1.552) | |
0.001 | 0.000 | 0.011 | |||||||||||
Non Academic | 2918 | 0.125 | 0.828 | (0.650, 1.054) | 5828 | 0.000 | 3.202 | (1.943, 5.279) | 2035 | 0.829 | 1.142 | (0.342, 3.817) | |
Income | Academic | 2181 | 0.000 | 0.565 | (0.421, 0.760) | 4290 | 0.003 | 2.205 | (1.318, 3.689) | 1291 | 0.371 | 0.564 | (0.161, 1.979) |
0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |||||||||||
Low | 1474 | 0.005 | 1.557 | (1.144, 2.119) | 2168 | 0.001 | 1.533 | (1.195, 1.966) | 661 | 0.000 | 3.574 | (1.998, 6.394) | |
Medium-High | 3512 | 0.814 | 0.968 | (0.736, 1.273) | 4796 | 0.651 | 0.948 | (0.751, 1.196) | 1537 | 0.041 | 1.808 | (1.024, 3.194) | |
High | 729 | 0.350 | 1.219 | (0.805, 1.845) | 1156 | 0.247 | 0.798 | (0.544, 1.170) | 371 | 0.858 | 1.090 | (0.425, 2.798) | |
constant | 0.000 | 0.026 | 0.000 | 0.008 | 0.000 | 0.011 |
Covariate | Levels of Covariate | During Routine (N = 5119) | During LICs (N = 8889) | During the Second Lebanon War (N = 2201) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
Gender | Female | 3056 | 0.000 | 1.640 | (1.458, 1.844) | 5625 | 0.000 | 1.812 | (1.631, 2.014) | 1308 | 0.000 | 1.760 | (1.437, 2.156) |
Age | Age | 0.365 | 0.000 | 0.076 | |||||||||
18–24 | 782 | 0.059 | 1.231 | (0.992, 1.528) | 915 | 0.001 | 1.382 | (1.143, 1.671) | 260 | 0.560 | 0.889 | (0.597, 1.322) | |
25–34 | 984 | 0.889 | 1.016 | (0.808, 1.278) | 1239 | 0.000 | 1.660 | (1.370, 2.012) | 354 | 0.101 | 1.378 | (0.940, 2.022) | |
35–44 | 1019 | 0.439 | 1.106 | (0.857, 1.427) | 1748 | 0.001 | 1.439 | (1.166, 1.776) | 426 | 0.128 | 1.393 | (0.909, 2.136) | |
45–54 | 1031 | 0.325 | 1.121 | (0.893, 1.409) | 1837 | 0.001 | 1.361 | (1.134, 1.633) | 472 | 0.039 | 1.475 | (1.020, 2.134) | |
55–64 | 713 | 0.295 | 1.140 | (0.892, 1.455) | 1614 | 0.101 | 1.170 | (0.970, 1.411) | 402 | 0.932 | 1.017 | (0.690, 1.500) | |
Parent-hood | Parents | 1833 | 0.039 | 1.189 | (1.008, 1.401) | 2871 | 0.328 | 1.077 | (0.928, 1.251) | 726 | 0.637 | 0.934 | (0.705, 1.238) |
faith Education | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.287 | ||||||||||
Ultra-orthodox | 190 | 0.004 | 0.613 | (0.441, 0.852) | 471 | 0.046 | 0.786 | (0.621, 0.996) | 110 | 0.291 | 1.269 | (0.816, 1.973) | |
Religious | 515 | 0.012 | 0.769 | (0.625, 0.944) | 946 | 0.502 | 0.942 | (0.793, 1.120) | 235 | 0.773 | 0.951 | (0.676, 1.337) | |
Traditional | 1349 | 0.000 | 1.323 | (1.154, 1.516) | 2373 | 0.000 | 1.275 | (1.132, 1.436) | 569 | 0.107 | 1.215 | (0.959, 1.539) | |
0.116 | 0.000 | 0.007 | |||||||||||
Non Academic | 1582 | 0.993 | 1.001 | (0.874, 1.001) | 4862 | 0.838 | 0.972 | (0.743, 1.272) | 1277 | 0.774 | 1.079 | (0.642, 1.813) | |
Income | Academic | 1179 | 0.051 | 0.856 | (0.795, 1.057) | 3658 | 0.024 | 0.728 | (0.552, 0.959) | 827 | 0.288 | 0.747 | (0.437, 1.279) |
0.000 | 0.000 | 0.003 | |||||||||||
Low | 930 | 0.003 | 1.301 | (1.091, 1.551) | 1714 | 0.000 | 1.415 | (1.219, 1.641) | 411 | 0.002 | 1.590 | (1.185, 2.133) | |
Medium-High | 2413 | 0.231 | 0.917 | (0.795, 1.057) | 3805 | 0.830 | 1.014 | (0.891, 1.154) | 954 | 0.844 | 1.026 | (0.795, 1.324) | |
High | 425 | 0.001 | 0.652 | (0.507, 0.837) | 907 | 0.050 | 0.814 | (0.662, 1.000) | 217 | 0.527 | 0.876 | (0.580, 1.322) | |
constant | 0.000 | 0.336 | 0.000 | 0.156 | 0.000 | 0.174 |
Covariate | Levels of Covariate | During Routine (N = 8400) | During LICs (N = 11,907) | During the Second Lebanon War (N = 4001) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | n | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
Gender | Female | 4939 | 0.000 | 1.830 | (1.679, 1.994) | 7551 | 0.000 | 2.607 | (2.417, 2.813) | 2451 | 0.000 | 2.958 | (2.597, 3.370) |
Age | Age | 0.101 | 0.004 | 0.012 | |||||||||
18–24 | 1330 | 0.584 | 0.961 | (0.835, 1.107) | 1289 | 0.271 | 1.079 | (0.942, 1.236) | 473 | 0.903 | 1.016 | (0.792, 1.302) | |
25–34 | 1332 | 0.982 | 0.998 | (0.856, 1.164) | 1733 | 0.001 | 1.260 | (1.096, 1.449) | 632 | 0.165 | 1.197 | (0.929, 1.542) | |
35–44 | 1893 | 0.064 | 1.157 | (0.992, 1.350) | 2346 | 0.001 | 1.310 | (1.123, 1.528) | 799 | 0.003 | 1.517 | (1.147, 2.006) | |
45–54 | 1504 | 0.366 | 1.075 | (0.919, 1.259) | 2491 | 0.000 | 1.270 | (1.113, 1.450) | 873 | 0.009 | 1.385 | (1.086, 1.766) | |
55–64 | 989 | 0.211 | 1.119 | (0.938, 1.335) | 2126 | 0.049 | 1.145 | (1.001, 1.331) | 731 | 0.084 | 1.244 | (0.971, 1.594) | |
Parent-hood | Parents | 2380 | 0.710 | 1.022 | (0.910, 1.148) | 3917 | 0.018 | 1.143 | (1.023, 1.277) | 1359 | 0.078 | 1.183 | (0.981, 1.426) |
faith Education | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.062 | ||||||||||
Ultra-orthodox | 401 | 0.000 | 0.682 | (0.556, 0.837) | 616 | 0.000 | 0.649 | (0.544, 0.774) | 187 | 0.484 | 0.894 | (0.652, 1.224) | |
Religious | 1007 | 0.000 | 0.743 | (0.649, 0.850) | 1268 | 0.011 | 0.850 | (0.750, 0.964) | 437 | 0.968 | 0.996 | (0.804, 1.234) | |
Traditional | 2138 | 0.004 | 1.166 | (1.051, 1.294) | 3205 | 0.022 | 1.110 | (1.015, 1.214) | 1071 | 0.016 | 1.213 | (1.037, 1.420) | |
0.500 | 0.000 | 0.041 | |||||||||||
Non Academic | 3426 | 0.249 | 0.940 | (0.847, 1.044) | 6248 | 0.001 | 0.804 | (0.706, 0.915) | 2397 | 0.436 | 0.859 | (0.585, 1.260) | |
Income | Academic | 2465 | 0.411 | 0.953 | (0.850, 1.069) | 4521 | 0.000 | 0.721 | (0.630, 0.826) | 1471 | 0.106 | 0.723 | (0.488, 1.071) |
0.242 | 0.000 | 0.002 | |||||||||||
Low | 1666 | 0.183 | 0.915 | (0.802, 1.043) | 2379 | 0.000 | 1.295 | (1.157, 1.449) | 799 | 0.001 | 1.426 | (1.166, 1.745) | |
Medium-High | 3848 | 0.043 | 0.894 | (0.801, 0.996) | 5191 | 0.370 | 1.044 | (0.950, 1.146) | 1797 | 0.378 | 1.079 | (0.911, 1.277) | |
High | 823 | 0.320 | 0.920 | (0.781, 1.084) | 1268 | 0.484 | 0.951 | (0.826, 1.094) | 443 | 0.739 | 0.959 | (0.751, 1.225) | |
constant | 0.157 | 0.899 | 0.000 | 0.523 | 0.000 | 0.471 |
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Eran-Jona, M.; Tiargan-Orr, R.; Levine, S.Z.; Limor, Y.; Schenhav, M.; Ben-Shalom, U. Habituation of Fear—Israeli-Jewish Population during Protracted Belligerence. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 16067. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316067
Eran-Jona M, Tiargan-Orr R, Levine SZ, Limor Y, Schenhav M, Ben-Shalom U. Habituation of Fear—Israeli-Jewish Population during Protracted Belligerence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(23):16067. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316067
Chicago/Turabian StyleEran-Jona, Meytal, Roni Tiargan-Orr, Stephen Z. Levine, Yehiel Limor, Mordechai Schenhav, and Uzi Ben-Shalom. 2022. "Habituation of Fear—Israeli-Jewish Population during Protracted Belligerence" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 23: 16067. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316067