Emotion Regulation and Psychological Capital of Chinese University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Serial Mediation Effect of Learning Satisfaction and Learning Engagement
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Research Process
2.2. Measurement
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Al-Oraibi, A.; Fothergill, L.; Yildirim, M.; Knight, H.; Carlisle, S.; O’Connor, M.; Briggs, L.; Morling, J.R.; Corner, J.; Ball, J.K.; et al. Exploring the Psychological Impacts of COVID-19 Social Restrictions on International University Students: A Qualitative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Allen, R.; Kannangara, C.; Vyas, M.; Carson, J. European university students’ mental health during COVID-19: Exploring attitudes towards COVID-19 and governmental response. Curr. Psychol. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fu, W.; Yan, S.; Zong, Q.; Anderson-Luxford, D.; Song, X.; Lv, Z.; Lv, C. Mental health of college students during the COVID-19 epidemic in China. J. Affect. Disord. 2021, 280, 7–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marques, G.; Drissi, N.; de la Torre Díez, I.; de Abajo, B.S.; Ouhbi, S. Impact of COVID-19 on the psychological health of university students in Spain and their attitudes toward Mobile mental health solutions. Int. J. Med. Inform. 2021, 147, 104369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seko, Y.; Meyer, J.; Bonghanya, R.; Honiball, L. Mental health support for Canadian postsecondary students during COVID-19 pandemic: An environmental scan. J. Am. Coll. Health 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pandya, A.; Lodha, P. Mental health consequences of COVID-19 pandemic among college students and coping approaches adapted by higher education institutions: A scoping review. SSM Ment. Health 2022, 2, 100122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maykrantz, S.A.; Langlinais, L.A.; Houghton, J.D.; Neck, C.P. Self-leadership and psychological capital as key cognitive resources for shaping health-protective behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Adm. Sci. 2021, 11, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luthans, F.; Broad, J.D. Positive psychological capital to help combat the mental health fallout from the pandemic and VUCA environment. Organ. Dyn. 2022, 51, 100817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jing, X.; Meng, H.; Li, Y.; Lu, L.; Yao, Y. Associations of Psychological Capital, Coping Style and Emotional Intelligence with Self-Rated Health Status of College Students in China During COVID-19 Pandemic. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2022, 15, 2587–2597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maykrantz, S.A.; Nobiling, B.D.; Oxarart, R.A.; Langlinais, L.A.; Houghton, J.D. Coping with the crisis: The effects of psychological capital and coping behaviors on perceived stress. Int. J. Workplace Health Manag. 2021, 14, 650–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luthans, F.; Avey, J.B.; Avolio, B.J.; Norman, S.M.; Combs, G.M. Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. J. Organ. Behav. 2006, 27, 387–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luthans, F.; Youssef-Morgan, C.M. Psychological Capital: An Evidence-Based Positive Approach. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2017, 4, 339–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luthans, F.; Avolio, B.J.; Avey, J.B.; Norman, S.M. Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Pers. Psychol. 2007, 60, 541–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Preston, A.; Rew, L.; Young, C.C. A Systematic Scoping Review of Psychological Capital Related to Mental Health in Youth. J. Sch. Nurs. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gomes da Costa, M.; Pinto, L.H.; Martins, H.; Vieira, D.A. Developing psychological capital and emotional intelligence in higher education: A field experiment with economics and management students. Int. J. Manag. Educ. 2021, 19, 100516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, L.; Xiao, Q.; Yang, Y. The psychological capital of left-behind university students: A description and intervention study from China. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 2438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Carter, J.W.; Youssef-Morgan, C. Psychological capital development effectiveness of face-to-face, online, and Micro-learning interventions. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2022, 27, 6553–6575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luthans, B.C.; Luthans, K.W.; Avey, J.B. Building the Leaders of Tomorrow. J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud. 2013, 21, 191–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, L.; Zhang, T. Perceived Social Support, Psychological Capital, and Subjective Well-Being among College Students in the Context of Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Asia-Pac. Educ. Res. 2022, 31, 563–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cao, S.Y.; Zhu, Y.; Li, P.; Zhang, W.; Ding, C.D.Y.; Yang, D. Age Difference in Roles of Perceived Social Support and Psychological Capital on Mental Health During COVID-19. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gross, J.J. Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychol. Inq. 2015, 26, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aldao, A. The Future of Emotion Regulation Research: Capturing Context. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2013, 8, 155–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Choi, A.; Lee, S. The effects of temperament, social support and emotion regulation on the positive psychological capital of middle school students. Korean J. Child Stud. 2016, 37, 57–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asareh, N.; Pirani, Z.; Zanganeh, F. Evaluating the effectiveness of self-help cognitive and emotion regulation training On the psychological capital and academic motivation of female students with anxiety. J. Sch. Psychol. 2022, 11, 96–110. [Google Scholar]
- Krifa, I.; van Zyl, L.E.; Braham, A.; Ben Nasr, S.; Shankland, R. Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shojaee, D.; Tavousi, M.N. The mediating role of goal self-concordance and cognitive emotion regulation in relationship between core self evaluation and life satisfaction. J. Psychol. 2019, 18, 675–682. [Google Scholar]
- Yigit, A.; Ragip, A.J.P. Emotion regulation strategies as a predictor of life satisfaction in university students. Psychology 2014, 5, 523–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Greenier, V.; Derakhshan, A.; Fathi, J. Emotion regulation and psychological well-being in teacher work engagement: A case of British and Iranian English language teachers. System 2021, 97, 102446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, Y.C. Spiritual Leadership and Job Engagement: The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 844991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fried, L.; Chapman, E. An investigation into the capacity of student motivation and emotion regulation strategies to predict engagement and resilience in the middle school classroom. Aust. Educ. Res. 2012, 39, 295–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cho, Y.A. Emotion Regulation Strategies and Engagement in a Korean EFL Context. Engl. Lit. Stud. 2022, 48, 223–245. [Google Scholar]
- Arguedas, M.; Daradoumis, A.; Xhafa Xhafa, F. Analyzing how emotion awareness influences students’ motivation, engagement, self-regulation and learning outcome. Educ. Technol. Soc. 2016, 19, 87–103. [Google Scholar]
- Topala, I.; Tomozii, S. Learning satisfaction: Validity and reliability testing for students’ learning satisfaction questionnaire (SLSQ). Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2014, 128, 380–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yu, Q. Factors Influencing Online Learning Satisfaction. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 852360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cote, S.; Morgan, L.M. A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Int. J. Ind. Occup. Organ. Psychol. Behav. 2002, 23, 947–962. [Google Scholar]
- Ortega-Maldonado, A.; Salanova, M. Psychological capital and performance among undergraduate students: The role of meaning-focused coping and satisfaction. Teach. High. Educ. 2018, 23, 390–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ke, F.; Xie, K.; Xie, Y. Game-based learning engagement: A theory-and data-driven exploration. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2016, 47, 1183–1201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dong, A.; Jong, M.S.-Y.; King, R.B. How does prior knowledge influence learning engagement? The mediating roles of cognitive load and help-seeking. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 591203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eriksen, E.V.; Bru, E. Investigating the Links of Social-Emotional Competencies: Emotional Well-being and Academic Engagement among Adolescents. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhoc, K.C.H.; Cai, Y.Y.; Yeung, S.S.; Shan, J.G. Subjective wellbeing and emotion regulation strategies: How are they associated with student engagement in online learning during COVID-19? Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, A.C.; Simões, C.; Cefai, C.; Freitas, E.; Arriaga, P. Emotion regulation and student engagement: Age and gender differences during adolescence. Int. J. Educ. Res. 2021, 109, 101830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lane, S.; Hoang, J.G.; Leighton, J.P.; Rissanen, A. Engagement and satisfaction: Mixed-method analysis of blended learning in the sciences. Math. Technol. Educ. 2021, 21, 100–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Zhang, M.; Qi, D.; Zhang, Y. Understanding the role of learner engagement in determining MOOCs satisfaction: A self-determination theory perspective. Interact. Learn. Environ. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E. Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Am. Psychol. 1989, 44, 513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E. Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 2002, 6, 307–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alarcon, G.M.; Edwards, J.M.; Menke, L.E. Student burnout and engagement: A test of the conservation of resources theory. J. Psychol. 2011, 145, 211–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siu, O.L.; Bakker, A.B.; Jiang, X. Psychological Capital Among University Students: Relationships with Study Engagement and Intrinsic Motivation. J. Happiness Stud. 2013, 15, 979–994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xanthopoulou, D.; Bakker, A.B.; Demerouti, E.; Schaufeli, W.B. The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model. Int. J. Stress Manag. 2007, 14, 121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Capone, V.; Caso, D.; Donizzetti, A.R.; Procentese, F. University Student Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Outbreak: What Are the Relationships between Information Seeking, Perceived Risk and Personal Resources Related to the Academic Context? Sustainability 2020, 12, 7039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grover, S.L.; Teo, S.T.T.; Pick, D.; Roche, M.; Newton, C.J. Psychological capital as a personal resource in the JD-R model. Pers. Rev. 2018, 47, 968–984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prifti, R. Self–efficacy and student satisfaction in the context of blended learning courses. Open Learn. J. Open Distance e-Learn. 2022, 37, 111–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Usán Supervía, P.; Salavera Bordás, C.; Murillo Lorente, V. Exploring the Psychological Effects of Optimism on Life Satisfaction in Students: The Mediating Role of Goal Orientations. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kyriazos, T.A. Applied psychometrics: Sample size and sample power considerations in factor analysis (EFA, CFA) and SEM in general. Psychology 2018, 9, 2207–2230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gross, J.J.; John, O.P. Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2003, 85, 348–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhu, Y.; Wang, H.; Wang, A. An evaluation of mental health and emotion regulation experienced by undergraduate nursing students in China during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. Int. J. Mental. Health. Nurs. 2021, 30, 1160–1169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gouveia, V.V.; Moura, H.M.d.; Oliveira, I.C.V.d.; Ribeiro, M.G.C.; Rezende, A.T.; Brito, T.R.d.S. Questionário de Regulação Emocional (QRE): Evidências de Validade de Construto e Consistência Interna. Psico-USF 2018, 23, 461–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guan, B.; Jepsen, D.M. Burnout from emotion regulation at work: The moderating role of gratitude. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2020, 156, 109703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panahi, S.; Yunus, A.S.M.; Roslan, S.B. Cognitive emotion regulation types among Malaysian graduates. Life Sci. J. 2013, 10, 52–59. [Google Scholar]
- Henseler, J.; Ringle, C.M.; Sarstedt, M. A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 2015, 43, 115–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, K. Positive psychological capital: Measurement and its association with mental health. Stud. Psychol. Behav. 2010, 8, 58–64. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, Y. Problematic social media usage and anxiety among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating role of psychological capital and the moderating role of academic burnout. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 612007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hao, J.; Wu, D.; Liu, L.; Li, X.; Wu, H. Association between Work-Family Conflict and Depressive Symptoms among Chinese Female Nurses: The Mediating and Moderating Role of Psychological Capital. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 6682–6699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Galanti, T.; Guidetti, G.; Mazzei, E.; Zappalà, S.; Toscano, F. Work from home during the COVID-19 outbreak: The impact on employees’ remote work productivity, engagement, and stress. J. Occup. 2021, 63, e426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mubarak, N.; Safdar, S.; Faiz, S.; Khan, J.; Jaafar, M. Impact of public health education on undue fear of COVID-19 among nurses: The mediating role of psychological capital. Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs. 2021, 30, 544–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nasurdin, A.M.; Ling, T.C.; Khan, S.N. The role of psychological capital on nursing performance in the context of medical tourism in Malaysia. Int. J. Bus. Soc. 2018, 19, 748–761. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, W.; Cao, Q.; Zhuo, C.; Mou, Y.; Pu, Z.; Zhou, Y. COVID-19 to Green Entrepreneurial Intention: Role of Green Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, Optimism, Ecological Values, Social Responsibility, and Green Entrepreneurial Motivation. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 732904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hongyu, L.; Rui, W. The Mediating Effect of Emotional Intelligence on the Relationship Between the Big Five and Academic Satisfaction. Stud. Psychol. Behav. 2009, 7, 176–182. [Google Scholar]
- Feng-qin, D.; Shu-juan, M. Characteristics of emotional intelligence and its relationship with self-esteem and academic satisfaction among college students. Chin. J. Public Health 2013, 29, 568–570. [Google Scholar]
- Fredricks, J.A.; Blumenfeld, P.C.; Paris, A.H. School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Rev. Educ. Res. 2004, 74, 59–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Veiga, F.H. Assessing student Engagement in School: Development and validation of a four-dimensional scale. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2016, 217, 813–819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mameli, C.; Passini, S. Measuring four-dimensional engagement in school: A validation of the student engagement scale and of the agentic engagement scale. TPM Test. Psychom. Methodol. Appl. Psychol. 2017, 24, 527–541. [Google Scholar]
- Veiga, F.H.; Festas, I.; García, Ó.F.; Oliveira, Í.M.; Veiga, C.M.; Martins, C.; Covas, F.; Carvalho, N.A. Do students with immigrant and native parents perceive themselves as equally engaged in school during adolescence? Curr. Psychol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rasoli Khorshidi, F.; Arab Ameri, M.; Bahrami, M. Abstract validity and reliability of student engagement in school scale. J. Educ. Psychol. Stud. 2019, 16, 77–92. [Google Scholar]
- Tortosa Martinez, B.M.; Del Carmen Perez-Fuentes, M.; Molero Jurado, M.d.M. Researching Academic Engagement in Students: A Systematic Review of the Associated Factors and Assessment Instruments. Rev. Iberoam. de Diagn. Y Eval.-e Aval. Psicol. 2022, 1, 101–111. [Google Scholar]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Salanova, M.; González-romá, V.; Bakker, A.B. The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout: A Two Sample Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach. J. Happiness Stud. 2002, 3, 71–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, L.; Chen, X.; Li, H. Bullying victimization, school belonging, academic engagement and achievement in adolescents in rural China: A serial mediation model. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2020, 113, 104946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seppälä, P.; Mauno, S.; Feldt, T.; Hakanen, J.; Kinnunen, U.; Tolvanen, A.; Schaufeli, W. The construct validity of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Multisample and longitudinal evidence. J. Happiness Stud. 2009, 10, 459–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Meng, L.; Jin, Y. A confirmatory factor analysis of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for students in a Chinese sample. Nurse Educ. Today 2017, 49, 129–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, 3rd ed.; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 1–732. [Google Scholar]
- Schoemann, A.M.; Boulton, A.J.; Short, S.D. Determining Power and Sample Size for Simple and Complex Mediation Models. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 2017, 8, 379–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prasath, P.R.; Mather, P.C.; Bhat, C.S.; James, J.K. University Student Well-Being During COVID-19: The Role of Psychological Capital and Coping Strategies. Prof. Couns. 2021, 11, 46–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turliuc, M.N.; Candel, O.S. The relationship between psychological capital and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal mediation model. J. Health Psychol. 2022, 27, 1913–1925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salessi, S.; Omar, A. Psychological capital and emotional regulation: The mediating role of job satisfaction. Estudos de Psicologia 2017, 22, 89–98. [Google Scholar]
- Bagheri-Sheykhangafshe, F.; Kiani, A.; Savabi-Niri, V.; Aghdasi, N.; Bourbour, Z. The Efficacy of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy on Psychological Capital and Emotion Regulation of Students with Suicidal Ideation. Int. J. Behav. Sci. 2022, 16, 96–102. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, Y.; Liu, K.; Li, S.; Shu, M. Social media activities, emotion regulation strategies, and their interactions on people’s mental health in COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Restubog, S.L.D.; Ocampo, A.C.G.; Wang, L. Taking control amidst the chaos: Emotion regulation during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020, 119, 103440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alat, P.; Das, S.S.; Arora, A.; Jha, A.K.J.C.p. Mental health during COVID-19 lockdown in India: Role of psychological capital and internal locus of control. Curr. Psychol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brackett, M.A.; Palomera, R.; Mojsa-Kaja, J.; Reyes, M.R.; Salovey, P. Emotion-regulation ability, burnout, and job satisfaction among British secondary-school teachers. Psychol. Sch. 2010, 47, 406–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, J.; Zhang, M.; Zhou, H.; Wu, J. College Satisfaction, Sense of Achievement, Student Happiness and Sense of Belonging of Freshmen in Chinese Private Colleges: Mediation Effect of Emotion Regulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Badran, M.A.; Youssef-Morgan, C.M. Psychological capital and job satisfaction in Egypt. J. Manag. Psychol. 2015, 30, 354–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, M.; Oja, B.D.; Kim, H.S.; Chin, J.-H. Developing student-athlete school satisfaction and psychological well-being: The effects of academic psychological capital and engagement. J. Sport Manag. 2020, 34, 378–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakker, A.B.; de Vries, J.D. Job Demands–Resources theory and self-regulation: New explanations and remedies for job burnout. Anxiety Stress Coping 2021, 34, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Williford, A.P.; Vick Whittaker, J.E.; Vitiello, V.E.; Downer, J.T. Children’s engagement within the preschool classroom and their development of self-regulation. Early Educ. Dev. 2013, 24, 162–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- De Neve, D.; Bronstein, M.V.; Leroy, A.; Truyts, A.; Everaert, J. Emotion Regulation in the Classroom: A Network Approach to Model Relations among Emotion Regulation Difficulties, Engagement to Learn, and Relationships with Peers and Teachers. J. Youth Adolesc. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, T.; Fu, Z.; Lian, X.; Ye, L.; Huang, W. Exploring emotion regulation and perceived control as antecedents of anxiety and its consequences during COVID-19 full remote learning. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 2608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Waal, J.J.D.; Pienaar, J. Towards understanding causality between work engagement and psychological capital: Original research. SA J. Ind. Psychol. 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- You, J.W. The relationship among college students’ psychological capital, learning empowerment, and engagement. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2016, 49, 17–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J.; Bu, L.; Li, Y.; Song, J.; Li, N. The mediating effect of academic engagement between psychological capital and academic burnout among nursing students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. Nurse Educ. Today 2021, 102, 104938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhen, R.; Liu, R.-D.; Ding, Y.; Wang, J.; Liu, Y.; Xu, L. The mediating roles of academic self-efficacy and academic emotions in the relation between basic psychological needs satisfaction and learning engagement among Chinese adolescent students. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2017, 54, 210–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rajabalee, Y.B.; Santally, M.I. Learner satisfaction, engagement and performances in an online module: Implications for institutional e-learning policy. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2021, 26, 2623–2656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makgahlela, M.; Mothiba, T.M.; Mokwena, J.P.; Mphekgwana, P. Measures to Enhance Student Learning and Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspectives of Students from a Historically Disadvantaged University. Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stratton, S.J. Population Research: Convenience Sampling Strategies. Prehospital Disaster Med. 2021, 36, 373–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Learning Engagement | Psychological Capital | Learning Satisfaction | Learning Engagement | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Learning engagement | - | |||
Psychological capital | 0.598 | - | ||
Learning satisfaction | 0.439 | 0.711 | - | |
Learning engagement | 0.536 | 0.769 | 0.635 | - |
Frequency | Category | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Female | 262 | 79.88% |
Male | 66 | 20.12% | |
Age | 18–22 years | 273 | 83.23% |
23–25 years | 48 | 14.63% | |
26–37 years | 7 | 2.13% | |
Learning level | Undergraduates | 284 | 86.59% |
Master’s students | 41 | 12.50% | |
Doctoral students | 3 | 0.91% | |
Location | Eastern area | 139 | 42.38% |
Central area | 102 | 31.10% | |
Western area | 73 | 22.26% | |
Northeast area | 14 | 4.27% |
Variable | Mean of the Total Score | Mean Score of Each Item | Standard Deviation of Mean Item Score for Each Individual | Range of Mean Item Score for Each Individual | Emotion Regulation | Psychological Capital | Learning Satisfaction | Learning Engagement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emotion regulation | 44.79 | 4.48 | 0.62 | 2.50~6.30 | 1 | |||
Psychological capital | 122.34 | 4.71 | 0.7 | 2.50~6.69 | 0.395 ** | 1 | ||
Learning satisfaction | 45.33 | 3.78 | 0.56 | 1.75~5.00 | 0.268 ** | 0.629 ** | 1 | |
Learning engagement | 56.32 | 3.31 | 0.58 | 1.59~4.76 | 0.375 ** | 0.684 ** | 0.548 ** | 1 |
Variable | N | Emotion Regulation | Psychological Capital | Learning Satisfaction | Learning Engagement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||||
Female | 262 | 44.06 ± 5.94 | 121.33 ± 17.80 | 45.23 ± 6.57 | 55.5 ± 9.26 |
Male | 66 | 47.65 ± 6.62 | 126.33 ± 19.20 | 45.71 ± 7.09 | 59.59 ± 11.29 |
T | 4.280 ** | 2.009 * | 0.522 | 2.724 ** | |
Age | |||||
18–22 years | 273 | 44.8 ± 6.09 | 121.72 ± 18.17 | 45.28 ± 6.54 | 55.95 ± 9.62 |
23–25 years | 48 | 43.85 ± 6.50 | 123.04 ± 16.21 | 44.75 ± 7.00 | 56.31 ± 9.37 |
26–37 years | 7 | 50.57 ± 8.02 | 141.57 ± 22.93 | 51.29 ± 7.25 | 70.71 ± 11.28 |
F | 3.596 * | 4.196 * | 3.021 | 8.033 ** | |
Learning level | |||||
Undergraduates | 284 | 44.76 ± 6.25 | 121.85 ± 18.32 | 45.29 ± 6.73 | 55.96 ± 9.78 |
Master students | 41 | 44.39 ± 5.98 | 124.39 ± 16.58 | 45.1 ± 6.22 | 57.8 ± 9.59 |
Doctoral students | 3 | 52.33 ± 6.35 | 140.33 ± 20.03 | 52.33 ± 3.79 | 70.33 ± 6.51 |
F | 2.294 | 1.845 | 1.694 | 3.775 * |
Dependent Variable | Independent Variable | Unstandardized Regression Coefficients (B) | Standardized Regression Coefficients (β) | t | p | Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval | R2 | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Learning satisfaction | 0.072 | 25.24 | p < 0.001 | ||||||
Emotion regulation | 0.286 | 0.268 | 5.024 | p < 0.001 | [0.164, 0.412] | ||||
Learning engagement | 0.356 | 89.819 | p < 0.001 | ||||||
Emotion regulation | 0.386 | 0.245 | 5.311 | p < 0.001 | [0.231, 0.540] | ||||
Learning satisfaction | 0.711 | 0.482 | 10.432 | p < 0.001 | [0.559, 0.857] | ||||
Psychological capital | 0.576 | 146.67 | p < 0.001 | ||||||
Emotion regulation | 0.395 | 0.136 | 3.465 | p < 0.001 | [0.163, 0.616] | ||||
Learning satisfaction | 0.960 | 0.352 | 8.112 | p < 0.001 | [0.688, 1.239] | ||||
Learning engagement | 0.814 | 0.440 | 9.761 | p < 0.001 | [0.631, 1.002] |
Pathway Type in the Model | Effect Size | BootSE | Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval | Ratio of Effect Size to Total Effect |
---|---|---|---|---|
Direct pathway | 0.395 | 0.114 | [0.171, 0.619] | 34.37% |
Emotion regulation→Psychological capital | ||||
Indirect pathways | 0.754 | 0.119 | [0.523, 0.998] | 65.62% |
Emotion regulation→Learning satisfaction→Psychological capital (ind1) | 0.275 | 0.068 | [0.149, 0.421] | 23.93% |
Emotion regulation→Learning engagement→Psychological capital (ind2) | 0.314 | 0.078 | [0.173, 0.479] | 27.33% |
Emotion regulation→Learning satisfaction→Learning engagement→Psychological capital (ind3) | 0.165 | 0.047 | [0.085, 0.268] | 14.36% |
Difference = ind1 − ind2 | −0.04 | 0.116 | [−0.274, 0.192] | / |
Difference = ind1 − ind3 | 0.109 | 0.06 | [−0.002, 0.234] | / |
Difference = ind2 − ind3 | 0.149 | 0.088 | [−0.023, 0.325] | / |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tang, Y.; He, W. Emotion Regulation and Psychological Capital of Chinese University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Serial Mediation Effect of Learning Satisfaction and Learning Engagement. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 13661. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013661
Tang Y, He W. Emotion Regulation and Psychological Capital of Chinese University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Serial Mediation Effect of Learning Satisfaction and Learning Engagement. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(20):13661. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013661
Chicago/Turabian StyleTang, Yuxi, and Weiguang He. 2022. "Emotion Regulation and Psychological Capital of Chinese University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Serial Mediation Effect of Learning Satisfaction and Learning Engagement" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 20: 13661. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013661