Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in University Students in Paraguay during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Population and Sample
2.3. Variables
2.4. Instrument
2.5. Procedures
2.6. Data Analysis
2.7. Ethical Aspects
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders
4.2. Factors Associated with Depression
4.3. Factors Associated with Anxiety
4.4. Factors Associated with Stress
4.5. Implications of Findings in Mental Health
4.6. Limitations and Strengths
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | No. (%) |
---|---|
Age (years) | |
18 to 20 | 108 (36.9) |
21 to 25 | 136 (46.4) |
26 to 30 | 37 (12.6) |
31 and over | 12 (4.1) |
Sex | |
Female | 226 (77.1) |
Male | 67 (22.9) |
Civil status | |
Married | 13 (4.4) |
Cohabitant | 13 (4.4) |
Single | 266 (90.8) |
Widower | 1 (0.3) |
University type | |
Private | 155 (52.9) |
Public | 138 (47.1) |
Schooling | |
First | 102 (34.8) |
Second | 37 (12.6) |
Third | 44 (15.0) |
Quarter | 31 (10.6) |
Fifth | 24 (8.2) |
Sixth | 55 (18.8) |
Career | |
Architecture | 77 (26.3) |
Health Sciences | 172 (58.7) |
Administration and trade | 21 (7.2) |
Agricultural | 8 (2.7) |
Social Sciences | 6 (2.1) |
Engineering | 7 (2.4) |
Technology | 1 (0.3) |
Physical | 1 (0.3) |
Training received from COVID-19 | |
1 | 135 (46.1) |
2 | 60 (20.5) |
3 | 31 (10.6) |
4 | 17 (5.8) |
5 | 3 (1.0) |
more than 5 | 47 (16.0) |
Health insurance | |
Social Security (IPS) | 19 (6.5) |
Private sector | 122 (41.6) |
Other | 152 (51.9) |
People with whom you lived in the home | |
1 | 15 (5.1) |
2 | 34 (11.6) |
3 | 75 (25.6) |
4 | 59 (20.1) |
5 | 64 (21.8) |
more than 5 | 46 (15.7) |
He was born in the same city as his/her university | |
No | 209 (71.3) |
Yes | 84 (28.7) |
Anxiety | |
Normal | 37 (12.6) |
Mild | 14 (4.8) |
Moderate | 55 (18.8) |
Severe | 41 (14.0) |
Extreme severe | 146 (49.8) |
Depression | |
Normal | 74 (25.3) |
Mild | 27 (9.2) |
Moderate | 89 (30.4) |
Severe | 47 (16.0) |
Extreme severe | 56 (19.1) |
Stress | |
Normal | 126 (43.0) |
Mild | 70 (23.9) |
moderate | 36 (12.3) |
Severe | 52 (17.8) |
Extreme severe | 9 (3.1) |
Variables | Depression | p * | Anxiety | p * | Stress | p * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No (n = 74) | Yes (n = 219) | No (n = 37) | Yes (n = 256) | No (n = 126) | Yes (n = 167) | ||||
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||||
Age (years) | 0.002 | 0.087 | 0.030 | ||||||
18 to 20 | 15 (13.9) | 93 (86.1) | 9 (8.3) | 99 (91.7) | 38 (35.2) | 70 (64.8) | |||
21 to 25 | 39 (28.7) | 97 (71.3) | 17 (12.5) | 119 (87.5) | 63 (46.3) | 73 (53.7) | |||
26 to 30 | 14 (37.8) | 23 (62.2) | 9 (24.3) | 28 (75.7) | 22 (59.5) | 15 (40.5) | |||
31 and over | 6 (50.0) | 6 (50.0) | 2 (16.7) | 10 (83.3) | 3 (25.0) | 9 (75.0) | |||
Sex | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
Female | 42 (18.6) | 184 (81.4) | 12 (5.3) | 214 (94.7) | 79 (35.0) | 147 (65.0) | |||
Male | 32 (47.8) | 35 (52.2) | 25 (37.3) | 42 (62.7) | 47 (70.2) | 20 (29.9) | |||
Single marital status | 0.016 | 0.720 | 0.874 | ||||||
No | 12 (44.4) | 15 (55.6) | 4 (14.8) | 23 (85.2) | 12 (44.4) | 15 (55.6) | |||
Yes | 62 (23.3) | 204 (76.7) | 33 (12.4) | 233 (87.6) | 114 (42.9) | 152 (57.1) | |||
University type | <0.001 | 0.003 | 0.004 | ||||||
Private | 55 (35.5) | 100 (64.5) | 28 (18.1) | 127 (81.9) | 79 (51.0) | 76 (49.0) | |||
Public | 19 (13.8) | 119 (86.2) | 9 (6.5) | 129 (93.5) | 47 (34.1) | 91 (65.9) | |||
Health career | 0.129 | 0.126 | 0.334 | ||||||
No | 25 (20.7) | 96 (79.3) | 11 (9.1) | 110 (90.9) | 48 (39.7) | 73 (60.3) | |||
Yes | 49 (28.5) | 123 (71.5) | 26 (15.1) | 146 (84.9) | 78 (45.4) | 94 (54.7) | |||
Training received from COVID-19 | 0.194 | 0.372 | 0.026 | ||||||
1 | 26 (19.3) | 109 (80.7) | 12 (8.9) | 123 (91.1) | 59 (43.7) | 76 (56.3) | |||
2 | 21 (35.0) | 39 (65.0) | 11 (18.3) | 49 (81.7) | 27 (45.0) | 33 (55.0) | |||
3 | 9 (29.0) | 22 (71.0) | 3 (9.7) | 28 (90.3) | 12 (38.7) | 19 (61.3) | |||
4 | 4 (23.5) | 13 (76.5) | 3 (17.7) | 14 (82.4) | 13 (76.5) | 4 (23.5) | |||
5 | 0 (0.0) | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (100.0) | |||
more than 5 | 14 (29.8) | 33 (70.2) | 8 (17.0) | 39 (83.0) | 15 (31.9) | 32 (68.1) | |||
health insurance | 0.063 | 0.250 | 0.199 | ||||||
Social Security (IPS) | 8 (42.1) | 11 (57.9) | 4 (21.1) | 15 (78.9) | 11 (57.9) | 8 (42.1) | |||
Other | 31 (20.4) | 121 (79.6) | 15 (9.9) | 137 (90.1) | 59 (38.8) | 93 (61.2) | |||
Private sector | 35 (28.7) | 87 (71.3) | 18 (14.8) | 104 (85.3) | 56 (45.9) | 66 (54.1) | |||
People with whom you lived in the home | 0.128 | 0.954 | 0.669 | ||||||
1 | 8 (53.3) | 7 (46.7) | 1 (6.7) | 14 (93.3) | 5 (33.3) | 10 (66.7) | |||
2 | 9 (26.5) | 25 (73.5) | 5 (14.7) | 29 (85.3) | 16 (47.1) | 18 (52.9) | |||
3 | 14 (18.7) | 61 (81.3) | 11 (14.7) | 64 (85.3) | 31 (41.3) | 44 (58.7) | |||
4 | 17 (28.8) | 42 (71.2) | 7 (11.9) | 52 (88.1) | 29 (49.2) | 30 (50.9) | |||
5 | 15 (23.4) | 49 (76.6) | 7 (10.9) | 57 (89.1) | 29 (45.3) | 35 (54.7) | |||
more than 5 | 11 (23.9) | 35 (76.1) | 6 (13.0) | 40 (87.0) | 16 (34.8) | 30 (65.2) | |||
He was born in the same city as his university | 0.718 | 0.352 | 0.453 | ||||||
No | 54 (25.8) | 155 (74.2) | 24 (11.5) | 185 (88.5) | 87 (41.6) | 122 (58.4) | |||
Yes | 20 (23.8) | 64 (76.2) | 13 (15.5) | 71 (84.5) | 39 (46.4) | 45 (53.6) |
Characteristics | Depression | Anxiety | Stress | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simple Regression | Multiple Regression | Simple Regression | Multiple Regression | Simple Regression | Multiple Regression | |||||||||||||
PR | CI 95% | p * | PR | CI 95% | p * | PR | CI 95% | p * | PR | CI 95% | p * | PR | CI 95% | p * | PR | CI 95% | p * | |
Age (years) | ||||||||||||||||||
18 to 20 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||
21 to 25 | 0.83 | 0.73–0.93 | 0.002 | 0.93 | 0.82–1.05 | 0.257 | 0.95 | 0.88–1.04 | 0.281 | 1.03 | 0.96–1.11 | 0.386 | 0.83 | 0.73–0.94 | 0.004 | 0.91 | 0.79–1.04 | 0.179 |
26 to 30 | 0.72 | 0.60–0.86 | <0.001 | 0.82 | 0.70–0.95 | 0.011 | 0.83 | 0.67–1.02 | 0.077 | 0.92 | 0.77–1.09 | 0.312 | 0.63 | 0.52–0.76 | <0.001 | 0.72 | 0.51–1.01 | 0.059 |
31 and over | 0.58 | 0.45–0.75 | <0.001 | 0.70 | 0.65–0.76 | <0.001 | 0.91 | 0.85–0.97 | 0.004 | 1.01 | 0.92–1.12 | 0.799 | 1.16 | 1.06–1.27 | 0.002 | 1.29 | 1.15–1.43 | <0.001 |
Sex | ||||||||||||||||||
Female | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||
Male | 0.64 | 0.44–0.94 | 0.022 | 0.67 | 0.47–0.95 | 0.026 | 0.66 | 0.57–0.77 | <0.001 | 0.67 | 0.58–0.76 | <0.001 | 0.46 | 0.37–0.57 | <0.001 | 0.47 | 0.37–0.60 | <0.001 |
Single marital status | ||||||||||||||||||
No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 1.38 | 1.07–1.78 | 0.012 | 1.17 | 0.86–1.58 | 0.310 | 1.03 | 0.90–1.18 | 0.689 | 1.03 | 0.82–1.29 | 0.809 | ||||||
Health career | ||||||||||||||||||
No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 0.90 | 0.80–1.01 | 0.073 | 0.93 | 0.85–1.02 | 0.148 | 0.91 | 0.82–1.00 | 0.054 | |||||||||
University type | ||||||||||||||||||
private | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||
public | 1.34 | 1.16–1.54 | <0.001 | 1.31 | 1.09–1.58 | 0.003 | 1.14 | 1.12–1.16 | <0.001 | 1.16 | 1.09–1.24 | <0.001 | 1.34 | 1.12–1.61 | 0.001 | 1.35 | 1.08–1.68 | 0.009 |
Training received from COVID-19 | ||||||||||||||||||
1 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||
2 | 0.81 | 0.63–1.03 | 0.083 | 0.90 | 0.75–1.08 | 0.241 | 0.90 | 0.76–1.06 | 0.198 | 0.94 | 0.83–1.06 | 0.295 | 0.98 | 0.69–1.38 | 0.894 | 1.09 | 0.80–1.49 | 0.590 |
3 | 0.88 | 0.73–1.06 | 0.188 | 1.07 | 0.90–1.27 | 0.428 | 0.99 | 0.90–1.10 | 0.866 | 1.06 | 0.99–1.13 | 0.082 | 1.09 | 0.86–1.38 | 0.488 | 1.33 | 0.91–1.95 | 0.144 |
4 | 0.95 | 0.75–1.19 | 0.644 | 1.24 | 0.93–1.66 | 0.136 | 0.90 | 0.66–1.23 | 0.522 | 1.02 | 0.80–1.30 | 0.890 | 0.42 | 0.23–0.77 | 0.005 | 0.57 | 0.30–1.09 | 0.089 |
5 | 1.24 | 1.09–1.41 | 0.001 | 1.56 | 1.20–2.02 | 0.001 | 1.10 | 1.01–1.19 | 0.025 | 1.12 | 1.06–1.19 | <0.001 | 1.78 | 1.41–2.23 | <0.001 | 1.74 | 1.27–2.40 | 0.001 |
more than 5 | 0.87 | 0.70–1.08 | 0.205 | 1.06 | 0.90–1.25 | 0.498 | 0.91 | 0.78–1.06 | 0.239 | 0.96 | 0.90–1.06 | 0.555 | 1.21 | 0.96–1.52 | 0.106 | 1.43 | 1.19–1.73 | <0.001 |
health insurance | ||||||||||||||||||
Social Security (IPS) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||||
Private sector | 1.23 | 0.69–2.20 | 0.481 | 1.14 | 0.90–1.45 | 0.277 | 1.28 | 0.85–1.94 | 0.235 | 1.13 | 0.73–1.76 | 0.580 | ||||||
Other | 1.38 | 0.83–2.28 | 0.217 | 1.08 | 0.87–1.34 | 0.489 | 1.45 | 1.02–2.08 | 0.041 | 1.28 | 0.88–1.85 | 0.192 | ||||||
People with whom you lived in the home | ||||||||||||||||||
1 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||||||
2 | 1.58 | 0.85–2.91 | 0.147 | 0.91 | 0.70–1.20 | 0.516 | 0.92 | 0.72–1.16 | 0.464 | 0.79 | 0.55–1.16 | 0.229 | ||||||
3 | 1.74 | 0.85–3.57 | 0.128 | 0.91 | 0.84–0.99 | 0.049 | 0.91 | 0.79–1.03 | 0.144 | 0.88 | 0.61–1.26 | 0.486 | ||||||
4 | 1.53 | 0.71–3.26 | 0.276 | 0.94 | 0.79–1.13 | 0.527 | 0.99 | 0.81–1.22 | 0.959 | 0.76 | 0.48–1.20 | 0.245 | ||||||
5 | 1.64 | 0.76–3.53 | 0.205 | 0.95 | 0.82–1.11 | 0.554 | 0.94 | 0.80–1.10 | 0.423 | 0.82 | 0.58–1.15 | 0.252 | ||||||
more than 5 | 1.63 | 0.64–4.12 | 0.302 | 0.93 | 0.75–1.16 | 0.527 | 0.91 | 0.74–1.12 | 0.366 | 0.98 | 0.67–1.43 | 0.909 | ||||||
He was born in the same city as his university | ||||||||||||||||||
No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 1.03 | 0.85–1.24 | 0.778 | 0.95 | 0.88–1.04 | 0.294 | 0.92 | 0.78–1.07 | 0.287 |
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Aveiro-Róbalo, T.R.; Garlisi-Torales, L.D.; Chumán-Sánchez, M.; Pereira-Victorio, C.J.; Huaman-Garcia, M.; Failoc-Rojas, V.E.; Valladares-Garrido, M.J. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in University Students in Paraguay during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12930. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912930
Aveiro-Róbalo TR, Garlisi-Torales LD, Chumán-Sánchez M, Pereira-Victorio CJ, Huaman-Garcia M, Failoc-Rojas VE, Valladares-Garrido MJ. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in University Students in Paraguay during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12930. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912930
Chicago/Turabian StyleAveiro-Róbalo, Telmo Raul, Luciana Daniela Garlisi-Torales, Marisella Chumán-Sánchez, César J. Pereira-Victorio, Mariana Huaman-Garcia, Virgilio E. Failoc-Rojas, and Mario J. Valladares-Garrido. 2022. "Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in University Students in Paraguay during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12930. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912930
APA StyleAveiro-Róbalo, T. R., Garlisi-Torales, L. D., Chumán-Sánchez, M., Pereira-Victorio, C. J., Huaman-Garcia, M., Failoc-Rojas, V. E., & Valladares-Garrido, M. J. (2022). Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in University Students in Paraguay during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(19), 12930. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912930