Does Participating in Physical Exercise Make Chinese Residents Happier?—Empirical Research Based on 2018 Chinese General Social Survey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Variable Selection
2.3. Analysis
2.3.1. OLS Regression
2.3.2. Grouped Regression
2.3.3. Propensity Score Matching
3. Results
3.1. Population Sample Estimation Results and Analysis
3.2. Grouped Regression Analysis
3.2.1. Analysis of Urban–Rural Heterogeneity
3.2.2. Regional Heterogeneity Analysis
3.2.3. Propensity Score Matching
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Implications and Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable Types | Variable Name | Answer Options | M | SD | MIN | MAX |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Explained variable | Subjective well-being | Very unhappy = 1, somewhat unhappy = 2, not really happy = 3, somewhat happy = 4, very happy = 5. | 3.909 | 0.813 | 1 | 5 |
Core explanatory variable | Exercise frequency | Daily, several times a week, several times a month, several times a year or less = 1, never = 0. | 0.576 | 0.494 | 0 | 1 |
Exercise intensity | 30 minutes of physical exercise per week that involves sweating | 2.555 | 4.007 | 0 | 96 | |
Individual level control variables | Gender | Male = 1, Female = 0. | 0.512 | 0.500 | 0 | 1 |
Age | Age of respondents | 52.522 | 15.619 | 18 | 85 | |
Ethnicity | Han = 1, other = 0. | 0.929 | 0.257 | 0 | 1 | |
Religion | No religious belief = 1, religious belief = 0 | 0.899 | 0.301 | 0 | 1 | |
Education | Years of education of respondents | 8.918 | 4.721 | 0 | 19 | |
Income | The logarithm of the respondents’ annual income | 9.942 | 1.344 | 0 | 16.113 | |
Party | Party member = 1, other = 0. | 0.125 | 0.330 | 0 | 1 | |
Marriage | First marriage with a spouse, second marriage with a spouse, cohabitation = 1, other = 0. | 0.805 | 0.397 | 0 | 1 | |
Household registration | Town = 1, rural = 0. | 0.474 | 0.499 | 0 | 1 | |
Working hours | Weekly working hours of respondents | 1.270 | 8.235 | 0 | 105 | |
Household level control variables | Household income | The logarithm of the annual household income of the respondents | 10.674 | 1.266 | 4.605 | 16.118 |
Family size | Respondents’ household size | 2.740 | 1.371 | 1 | 21 | |
Family SEs | Well below average = 1, below average = 2, average = 3, above average = 4, well above average = 5. | 2.594 | 0.728 | 1 | 5 | |
Social level control variables | Area | West = 0, central = 1, east = 2. | 1.282 | 0.769 | 0 | 2 |
Social | Never = 0, once a year or less = 1, several times a year = 2, about once a month = 3, several times a month = 4, once or twice a week = 5, every day = 6. | 2.974 | 1.843 | 0 | 6 | |
SEs | Lower tier = 1, lower-middle tier = 2, middle tier = 3, upper-middle Tier = 4, upper tier = 5. | 2.328 | 0.861 | 1 | 5 | |
Medicare | Yes = 1, no = 0. | 0.935 | 0.247 | 0 | 1 |
Variable | Model (1) | Model (2) | Model (3) | Model (4) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Subjective Well-Being | Subjective Well-Being | Subjective Well-Being | Subjective Well-Being | |
Exercise frequency | 0.143 *** | 0.0779 *** | 0.0629 *** | 0.0400 ** |
(0.0196) | (0.0210) | (0.0205) | (0.0203) | |
Exercise intensity | 0.0127 *** | 0.0107 *** | 0.00947 *** | 0.00913 *** |
(0.00242) | (0.00240) | (0.00234) | (0.00231) | |
Gender | −0.0619 *** | −0.0337 * | −0.0209 | |
(0.0179) | (0.0176) | (0.0174) | ||
Age | 0.00466 *** | 0.00471 *** | 0.00426 *** | |
(0.000678) | (0.000681) | (0.000685) | ||
Ethnicity | −0.0304 | −0.0363 | −0.0336 | |
(0.0350) | (0.0341) | (0.0336) | ||
Religion | −0.0615 ** | −0.0514 * | −0.0394 | |
(0.0298) | (0.0290) | (0.0286) | ||
Education | 0.00804 *** | 0.00417 * | 0.00304 | |
(0.00252) | (0.00247) | (0.00246) | ||
Income | 0.0704 *** | 0.0140 | 0.00539 | |
(0.00858) | (0.0109) | (0.0108) | ||
Party | 0.107 *** | 0.0676 ** | 0.0537 ** | |
(0.0284) | (0.0277) | (0.0273) | ||
Marriage | 0.165 *** | 0.112 *** | 0.112 *** | |
(0.0220) | (0.0223) | (0.0221) | ||
Household registration | −0.0183 | −0.0256 | −0.0351 | |
(0.0220) | (0.0216) | (0.0213) | ||
Working hours | 0.000112 | −0.000138 | −0.000125 | |
(0.00106) | (0.00103) | (0.00101) | ||
Household income | 0.0310 *** | 0.0242 ** | ||
(0.0115) | (0.0114) | |||
Family size | 0.0150 ** | 0.0146 ** | ||
(0.00682) | (0.00675) | |||
Family SEs | 0.258 *** | 0.137 *** | ||
(0.0127) | (0.0147) | |||
Region | 0.0163 | |||
(0.0121) | ||||
Social | 0.0167 *** | |||
(0.00467) | ||||
SEs | 0.185 *** | |||
(0.0121) | ||||
Medicare | 0.0374 | |||
(0.0339) | ||||
Constant | 3.794 *** | 2.798 *** | 2.396 *** | 2.366 *** |
(0.0135) | (0.0993) | (0.109) | (0.112) | |
Observations | 8445 | 8445 | 8445 | 8445 |
R2 | 0.016 | 0.045 | 0.096 | 0.123 |
Variable | Urban–Rural | Area | Gender | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rural | Urban | West | Middle | East | Female | Male | |
Exercise Frequency | 0.0370 | 0.0486 * | 0.0671 | 0.00871 | 0.0489 * | 0.0365 | 0.0484 * |
(0.0284) | (0.0293) | (0.0471) | (0.0358) | (0.0292) | (0.0291) | (0.0286) | |
Exercise Intensity | 0.00620 * | 0.0116 *** | 0.00402 | 0.00872 ** | 0.0136 *** | 0.0122 *** | 0.00538 |
(0.00351) | (0.00302) | (0.00494) | (0.00411) | (0.00342) | (0.00314) | (0.00341) | |
Gender | 0.00290 | −0.0496 ** | 0.00187 | −0.0112 | −0.0416 * | - | - |
(0.0257) | (0.0236) | (0.0431) | (0.0317) | (0.0235) | |||
Age | 0.00464 *** | 0.00388 *** | 0.00739 *** | 0.00375 *** | 0.00327 *** | 0.00365 *** | 0.00435 *** |
(0.00108) | (0.000891) | (0.00167) | (0.00131) | (0.000926) | (0.00102) | (0.000955) | |
Ethnicity | −0.0434 | −0.00820 | 0.0375 | −0.103 | 0.0284 | −0.0200 | −0.0446 |
(0.0420) | (0.0591) | (0.0681) | (0.0692) | (0.0500) | (0.0475) | (0.0478) | |
Religion | −0.0283 | −0.0529 | −0.114 * | −0.0175 | 0.00139 | −0.0315 | −0.0480 |
(0.0398) | (0.0412) | (0.0662) | (0.0579) | (0.0382) | (0.0368) | (0.0457) | |
Education | 0.00748 ** | −0.00210 | 0.0115 ** | 0.00276 | −0.000501 | −0.000480 | 0.00640 * |
(0.00365) | (0.00334) | (0.00570) | (0.00452) | (0.00342) | (0.00351) | (0.00351) | |
Income | −0.00539 | 0.0276 | 0.0453 * | −0.00361 | −0.0156 | −0.00157 | 0.00891 |
(0.0141) | (0.0184) | (0.0233) | (0.0189) | (0.0163) | (0.0151) | (0.0158) | |
Party | 0.0200 | 0.0761 ** | 0.0581 | 0.0344 | 0.0734 ** | 0.0880 * | 0.0428 |
(0.0562) | (0.0304) | (0.0833) | (0.0538) | (0.0333) | (0.0468) | (0.0340) | |
Marriage | 0.113 *** | 0.121 *** | 0.0398 | 0.170 *** | 0.124 *** | 0.0841 *** | 0.149 *** |
(0.0327) | (0.0299) | (0.0531) | (0.0422) | (0.0294) | (0.0311) | (0.0323) | |
Household registration | - | - | −0.0334 | −0.0112 | −0.0563 * | −0.0109 | −0.0593 ** |
(0.0524) | (0.0385) | (0.0297) | (0.0313) | (0.0294) | |||
Working hours | −0.00176 | 0.00238 | 0.00375 | −0.000559 | −0.000978 | −0.00201 | 0.00127 |
(0.00137) | (0.00152) | (0.00285) | (0.00162) | (0.00145) | (0.00153) | (0.00136) | |
Household income | 0.0301 ** | 0.0180 | -0.00833 | 0.0506 *** | 0.0123 | 0.0254 | 0.0259 |
(0.0146) | (0.0188) | (0.0263) | (0.0195) | (0.0171) | (0.0156) | (0.0169) | |
Family size | 0.0198 ** | 0.00657 | 0.0528 *** | −0.00396 | 0.00797 | 0.0158 | 0.0119 |
(0.00902) | (0.0103) | (0.0154) | (0.0119) | (0.00975) | (0.00970) | (0.00943) | |
Family SEs | 0.141 *** | 0.129 *** | 0.142 *** | 0.131 *** | 0.145 *** | 0.161 *** | 0.114 *** |
(0.0205) | (0.0212) | (0.0342) | (0.0272) | (0.0203) | (0.0215) | (0.0203) | |
Area | 0.0286 * | −0.00393 | 0.0394 ** | −0.00494 | |||
(0.0165) | (0.0181) | (0.0176) | (0.0166) | ||||
Social | 0.0111 * | 0.0234 *** | 0.00685 | 0.0177 ** | 0.0204 *** | 0.0141 ** | 0.0180 *** |
(0.00638) | (0.00692) | (0.0115) | (0.00793) | (0.00674) | (0.00655) | (0.00672) | |
SEs | 0.187 *** | 0.178 *** | 0.185 *** | 0.183 *** | 0.190 *** | 0.173 *** | 0.196 *** |
(0.0167) | (0.0176) | (0.0277) | (0.0224) | (0.0168) | (0.0175) | (0.0167) | |
Medicare | 0.0518 | 0.0120 | 0.100 | 0.00345 | 0.0361 | 0.0769 | 0.00534 |
(0.0447) | (0.0533) | (0.0810) | (0.0583) | (0.0489) | (0.0487) | (0.0474) | |
Constant | 2.312 *** | 2.310 *** | 2.021 *** | 2.291 *** | 2.726 *** | 2.370 *** | 2.353 *** |
(0.158) | (0.188) | (0.260) | (0.213) | (0.165) | (0.161) | (0.159) | |
Observations | 4446 | 3999 | 1640 | 2782 | 4023 | 4123 | 4322 |
R2 | 0.107 | 0.129 | 0.124 | 0.113 | 0.131 | 0.127 | 0.123 |
Variable | Unmatched | Mean | %Reduct | t-Test | V(T)/ | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Matched | Treated | Control | %Bias | |Bias| | t | p > t | V(C) | |
Gender | U | 0.51623 | 0.50573 | 2.1 | 0.95 | 0.34 | ||
M | 0.51623 | 0.50637 | 2 | 6.1 | 0.97 | 0.331 | ||
Age | U | 51.046 | 54.532 | −22.6 | −10.2 | 0 | 1.14 * | |
M | 51.046 | 52.271 | −7.9 | 64.8 | −3.79 | 0 | 1 | |
Ethnicity | U | 0.94967 | 0.9002 | 18.9 | 8.77 | 0 | ||
M | 0.94967 | 0.9544 | −1.8 | 90.5 | −1.09 | 0.275 | ||
Religion | U | 0.90612 | 0.89013 | 5.3 | 2.41 | 0.016 | ||
M | 0.90612 | 0.89359 | 4.1 | 21.6 | 2.06 | 0.039 | ||
Education | U | 10.301 | 7.0366 | 73.7 | 33.4 | 0 | 1.05 | |
M | 10.301 | 10.162 | 3.1 | 95.8 | 1.55 | 0.12 | 1.09 * | |
Income | U | 10.324 | 9.4229 | 70.2 | 32.25 | 0 | 0.75 * | |
M | 10.324 | 10.311 | 1 | 98.6 | 0.53 | 0.597 | 0.98 | |
Party | U | 0.16311 | 0.07213 | 28.5 | 12.63 | 0 | ||
M | 0.16311 | 0.15715 | 1.9 | 93.5 | 0.8 | 0.423 | ||
Marriage | U | 0.79951 | 0.81157 | −3 | −1.38 | 0.167 | ||
M | 0.79951 | 0.78554 | 3.5 | −15.8 | 1.7 | 0.089 | ||
Household registration | U | 0.61031 | 0.28739 | 68.6 | 30.99 | 0 | ||
M | 0.61031 | 0.62654 | −3.4 | 95 | −1.65 | 0.099 | ||
Working hours | U | 1.3014 | 1.2276 | 0.9 | 0.41 | 0.684 | 0.85* | |
M | 1.3014 | 1.1561 | 1.8 | −96.8 | 0.92 | 0.356 | 1.10 * | |
Household income | U | 11.031 | 10.187 | 69.9 | 32.04 | 0 | 0.77 * | |
M | 11.031 | 11.007 | 2 | 97.1 | 1.06 | 0.291 | 1 | |
Family size | U | 2.7124 | 2.7786 | −4.8 | −2.19 | 0.028 | 0.90 * | |
M | 2.7124 | 2.7182 | −0.4 | 91.3 | −0.22 | 0.83 | 1.07 * | |
Family SEs | U | 2.6972 | 2.4526 | 33.9 | 15.47 | 0 | 0.90 * | |
M | 2.6972 | 2.7062 | −1.3 | 96.3 | −0.64 | 0.525 | 1 | |
Region | U | 1.4141 | 1.1026 | 41.1 | 18.78 | 0 | 0.85 * | |
M | 1.4141 | 1.3969 | 2.3 | 94.5 | 1.15 | 0.248 | 0.94 * | |
Social | U | 3.2479 | 2.6005 | 35.3 | 16.2 | 0 | 0.74 * | |
M | 3.2479 | 3.2734 | −1.4 | 96.1 | −0.71 | 0.479 | 0.84 * | |
SEs | U | 2.4577 | 2.1521 | 35.9 | 16.37 | 0 | 0.89 * | |
M | 2.4577 | 2.4706 | −1.5 | 95.8 | −0.75 | 0.45 | 0.91 * | |
Medicare | U | 0.94269 | 0.92396 | 7.5 | 3.45 | 0.001 | ||
M | 0.94269 | 0.94988 | −2.9 | 61.6 | −1.57 | 0.116 |
Method | Pseudo R2 | LR chi2 | p > chi2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unmatched | Matched | Unmatched | Matched | Unmatched | Matched | |
K-nearest neighbor matching (k = 1) | 0.095 | 0.003 | 1113.940 | 37.520 | 0.000 | 0.906 |
K-nearest neighbor matching (k = 4) | 0.095 | 0.002 | 1113.940 | 24.980 | 0.000 | 0.999 |
Radius matching (0.05) | 0.095 | 0.002 | 1113.940 | 25.780 | 0.000 | 0.999 |
Kernel matching | 0.095 | 0.002 | 1113.940 | 23.530 | 0.000 | 0.997 |
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Gan, L.; Jiang, Y. Does Participating in Physical Exercise Make Chinese Residents Happier?—Empirical Research Based on 2018 Chinese General Social Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12732. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912732
Gan L, Jiang Y. Does Participating in Physical Exercise Make Chinese Residents Happier?—Empirical Research Based on 2018 Chinese General Social Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12732. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912732
Chicago/Turabian StyleGan, Liluo, and Yumei Jiang. 2022. "Does Participating in Physical Exercise Make Chinese Residents Happier?—Empirical Research Based on 2018 Chinese General Social Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12732. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912732