Investigating the Effects of Differential Learning on Golfers’ Pitching Performance as a Function of Handicap
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Training Intervention
2.3. Testing Session and Measurements
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Comparing the DL (n = 15) and the RB Group (n = 14)
3.2. Differences within the Golfers of the DL Group between Low Handicap (n = 7) and High Handicap (n = 8) Scores
3.3. Differences within the RB Group between Low Handicap (n = 5) and High Handicap (n = 9) Golfers
4. Discussion
4.1. Differences of the Intervention between the DL and RB Training Group
4.2. Effects of DL Practicing between Low and High Handicap Golfers
4.3. Effects of RB Approach between Low and High Handicap Golfers
5. Study Constraints as Inspiration for Further Studies
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Golfers Characterization | DL Group | RB Group | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low Handicap (n = 7) | High Handicap (n = 8) | Low Handicap (n = 5) | High Handicap (n = 9) | |
Age (years) | 17.71 ± 1.67 | 14.00 ± 1.32 | 17.40 ± 1.62 | 15.78 ± 2.74 |
Body mass (kg) | 73.43 ± 6.34 | 56.0 ± 8.47 | 63.60 ± 6.53 | 66.0 ± 8.11 |
Height (cm) | 177.14 ± 8.74 | 167.50 ± 7.98 | 172.4 ± 6.09 | 172.0 ± 6.16 |
Handicap | 0.50 ± 1.57 | 20.05 ± 10.69 | 2.06 ± 1.22 | 17.39 ± 10.84 |
Playing experience (years) | 10.57 ± 1.84 | 4.38 ± 2.06 | 9.0 ± 2.10 | 6.67 ± 3.30 |
Starting age practicing golf | 5.00 ± 2.00 * | 6.50 ± 2.69 | 2.80 ± 1.60 | 5.22 ± 2.82 |
Session Number | DL Group | RB Group |
---|---|---|
1 | Short grass, the player had to collect the ball in different places from the shot location (i.e., considering a 2 m distance, the player needed to pick the ball in the back, the right, the left). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | Short Grass, 9 shots for each distance (n = 9 for 20 m; following by n = 9 for 35 m; and ending with n = 9 m for the 50 m; in sum = 27 reps per session). |
2 | Short grass, varying the distance (i.e., 23 m, 33 m, 47 m). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
3 | Varying the surface (i.e., sand). Amount of practice = 27 reps. | |
4 | Varying the surface (i.e., high grass). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
5 | Varying the iron (i.e., lower loft). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
6 | Varying the ball position according to the feet (front, back, side). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
7 | Varying the iron (i.e., lower size). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
8 | Varying the type of ball (i.e., tennis ball and beach tennis). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
9 | Performing with visual restriction (i.e., using an eye band covering the dominant eye). Amount of practice = 27 executions. | |
10 | Varying the surface (i.e., sand, short and high grass). Amount of practice = 27 executions. |
Variables | RB Group | DL Group | RB vs. DL Group Difference of Means | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Test | Post-Test | Pre-Test | Post-Test | |||
(M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (Raw; ±95% CI) | ||
20 m Distance | ||||||
Score (points) | 53.25 ± 34.79 | 67.42 ± 24.95 | 57.36 ± 30.01 | 72.53 ± 25.66 | 1.00 ± 8.33 | 0.114 |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 33.06 ± 3.16 | 32.51 ± 2.70 | 32.96 ± 3.49 | 32.47 ± 3.05 | 0.34 ± 1.05 | 0.824 |
Carry Distance (m) | 16.63 ± 5.04 | 17.82 ± 3.32 | 16.68 ± 4.50 | 18.03 ± 3.25 | 0.15 ± 1.25 | 0.601 |
Side (m) | −0.21 ± 0.76 | −0.25 ± 0.80 | 0.04 ± 0.98 | 0.07 ± 1.13 | 0.08 ± 0.25 | 0.031 |
Attack Angle (°) | −4.61 ± 2.62 | −4.01 ± 1.95 | −3.86 ± 1.79 | −4.78 ± 2.03 | −1.18 ± 0.66 | <0.001 |
Face Angle (°) | −0.89 ± 3.05 | −1.16 ± 3.27 | −1.19 ± 3.46 | −0.27 ± 3.33 | 1.06 ± 1.12 | 0.085 |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 43.23 ± 8.56 | 45.06 ± 8.62 | 45.71 ± 5.58 | 44.94 ± 5.91 | −1.13 ± 2.81 | 0.588 |
35 m Distance | ||||||
Score (points) | 52.50 ± 34.12 | 64.54 ± 29.47 | 56.98 ± 31.54 | 63.57 ± 25.24 | −5.44 ± 9.44 | 0.677 |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 46.08 ± 3.90 | 45.29 ± 4.32 | 46.08 ± 3.82 | 45.74 ± 3.57 | 0.14 ± 1.30 | 0.467 |
Carry Distance (m) | 29.93 ± 7.47 | 31.34 ± 6.05 | 30.51 ± 6.67 | 32.10 ± 5.18 | 0.17 ± 2.18 | 0.227 |
Side (m) | 0.17 ± 1.33 | 0.15 ± 1.28 | 0.27 ± 2.00 | 0.46 ± 1.69 | 0.22 ± 0.49 | 0.089 |
Attack Angle (°) | −4.22 ± 2.64 | −3.73 ± 1.91 | −3.28 ± 2.26 | −4.42 ± 2.00 | −1.57 ± 1.01 | 0.033 |
Face Angle (°) | −0.06 ± 3.21 | 0.41 ± 2.70 | −0.53 ± 3.06 | 3.43 ± 11.33 | 4.13 ± 2.45 | 0.004 |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 42.77 ± 7.35 | 45.09 ± 6.48 | 43.74 ± 6.17 | 41.24 ± 12.63 | −6.48 ± 3.35 | <0.001 |
50 m Distance | ||||||
Score (points) | 47.56 ± 32.99 | 56.58 ± 30.23 | 48.99 ± 34.73 | 68.16 ± 25.97 | 10.15 ± 9.5 | <0.001 |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 57.79 ± 4.18 | 56.32 ± 3.38 | 56.46 ± 4.39 | 57.47 ± 3.97 | 2.24 ± 1.21 | 0.003 |
Carry Distance (m) | 44.83 ± 8.52 | 45.45 ± 8.07 | 43.55 ± 9.90 | 47.95 ± 6.12 | 3.78 ± 2.57 | 0.002 |
Side (m) | 0.54 ± 3.92 | 0.30 ± 2.19 | 0.12 ± 2.34 | 0.30 ± 1.69 | 0.43 ± 0.91 | 0.946 |
Attack Angle (°) | −4.06 ± 2.64 | −3.61 ± 2.32 | −3.51 ± 2.43 | −4.78 ± 2.21 | −1.98 ± 0.86 | <0.001 |
Face Angle (°) | 0.68 ± 3.29 | 0.32 ± 3.43 | −0.22 ± 3.24 | 3.30 ± 11.59 | 4.41 ± 2.46 | 0.003 |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 42.31 ± 8.08 | 44.86 ± 7.35 | 43.88 ± 6.58 | 41.06 ± 12.38 | −6.27 ± 3.21 | <0.001 |
Variables | Low Handicap Group | High Handicap Group | Low vs. High Handicap Difference in Means | p | Cohen’s d [95% CI] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Test | Post-Test | Pre-Test | Post-Test | ||||
(M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (Raw; ±95% CI) | |||
20 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 45.43 ± 31.56 | 63.14 ± 29.11 | 71.50 ± 20.64 | 83.27 ± 15.23 | −5.94 ± 9.47 | 0.002 | −0.21 [−0.55; 0.13] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 33.92 ± 4.29 | 32.27 ± 3.59 | 32.11 ± 2.30 | 32.69 ± 2.31 | 2.02 ± 1.51 | 0.28 | 0.61 [0.16; 1.07] |
Carry Distance (m) | 15.93 ± 5.74 | 17.41 ± 4.04 | 17.54 ± 2.16 | 18.73 ± 1.76 | −0.28 ± 1.39 | 0.066 | −0.07 [−0.42; 0.28] |
Side (m) | 0.10 ± 1.28 | 0.10 ± 1.50 | −0.02 ± 0.42 | 0.05 ± 0.44 | 0.07 ± 0.38 | 0.993 | 0.07 [−0.28; 0.42] |
Attack Angle (°) | −3.57 ± 2.15 | −4.11 ± 2.31 | −4.08 ± 1.46 | −5.46 ± 1.41 | −0.26 ± 0.86 | 0.035 | −0.14 [−0.58; 0.31] |
Face Angle (°) | −0.64 ± 4.76 | −0.55 ± 4.28 | −1.61 ± 1.88 | 0.01 ± 2.01 | 1.46 ± 1.63 | 0.086 | 0.43 [−0.05; 0.91] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 43.87 ± 6.57 | 43.84 ± 7.56 | 47.11 ± 4.22 | 46.02 ± 3.36 | −2.04 ± 2.77 | 0.653 | −0.35 [−0.83; 0.13] |
35 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 48.28 ± 34.57 | 57.45 ± 28.01 | 66.93 ± 24.34 | 70.57 ± 19.61 | −5.53 ± 11.61 | 0.007 | −0.19 [−0.60; 0.21] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 46.55 ± 4.59 | 45.26 ± 4.41 | 45.60 ± 2.79 | 46.27 ± 2.25 | 2.26 ± 1.62 | 0.035 | 0.61 [0.17; 1.04] |
Carry Distance (m) | 29.83 ± 8.56 | 31.58 ± 6.20 | 31.30 ± 3.31 | 32.7 ± 3.64 | −0.34 ± 2.79 | 0.126 | −0.06 [−0.52; 0.41] |
Side (m) | 0.36 ± 2.62 | 0.57 ± 2.11 | 0.16 ± 0.84 | 0.34 ± 1.02 | −0.03 ± 0.72 | 0.466 | −0.02 [−0.40; 0.37] |
Attack Angle (°) | −3.66 ± 2.75 | −3.85 ± 1.97 | −2.97 ± 1.73 | −5.14 ± 1.81 | −1.58 ± 1.47 | 0.045 | −0.73 [−1.42; −0.05] |
Face Angle (°) | −0.18 ± 3.95 | 0.31 ± 3.00 | −0.86 ± 1.84 | 6.74 ± 15.33 | 7.78 ± 4.28 | 0.001 | 0.93 [0.42; 1.45] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 42.16 ± 7.95 | 44.14 ± 5.35 | 45.24 ± 3.16 | 38.17 ± 16.78 | −9.64 ± 5.09 | 0.005 | −0.96 [−1.47; −0.45] |
50 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 35.55 ± 34.07 | 60.54 ± 28.52 | 64.36 ± 28.76 | 76.87 ± 19.51 | −12.47 ± 12.94 | <0.001 | −0.40 [−0.82; 0.02] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 55.77 ± 4.99 | 56.500 ± 3.97 | 57.02 ± 3.77 | 58.62 ± 3.69 | 1.86 ± 1.52 | <0.001 | 0.44 [0.08; 0.80] |
Carry Distance (m) | 40.78 ± 11.96 | 47.16 ± 7.43 | 46.72 ± 5.38 | 48.85 ± 4.01 | −4.24 ± 3.31 | 2.4 | −0.51 [−0.91; −0.11] |
Side (m) | −0.04 ± 2.79 | 0.18 ± 1.98 | 0.29 ± 1.70 | 0.45 ± 1.28 | −0.06 ± 0.97 | 0.266 | −0.03 [−0.50; 0.45] |
Attack Angle (°) | −3.03 ± 3.04 | −4.12 ± 2.48 | −3.83 ± 1.88 | −5.52 ± 1.56 | −0.65 ± 1.32 | 0.05 | −0.28 [−0.84; 0.28] |
Face Angle (°) | −0.36 ± 4.30 | −0.07 ± 2.69 | −0.12 ± 2.05 | 7.13 ± 15.91 | 7.08 ± 4.16 | 0.002 | 0.83 [0.34; 1.31] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 42.76 ± 8.86 | 43.69 ± 6.03 | 44.77 ± 3.77 | 38.07 ± 16.48 | −7.36 ± 4.81 | 0.018 | −0.74 [−1.22; −0.26] |
Variables | Low Handicap Group | High Handicap Group | Low vs. High Handicap Difference in Means | p | Cohen’s d [95% CI] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Test | Post-Test | Pre-Test | Post-Test | ||||
(M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (M ± SD) | (Raw; ±95% CI) | |||
20 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 53.88 ± 34.03 | 61.58 ± 27.03 | 52.12 ± 36.44 | 77.94 ± 16.23 | 18.12 ± 13.18 | <0.001 | 0.60 [0.16; 1.03] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 32.41 ± 3.37 | 31.70 ± 2.75 | 34.12 ± 2.47 | 33.85 ± 2.03 | 0.65 ± 1.45 | <0.001 | 0.22 [−0.27; 0.71] |
Carry Distance (m) | 23.50 ± 4.68 | 23.30 ± 3.80 | 16.85 ± 5.62 | 18.40 ± 2.04 | 0.55 ± 2.04 | 0.12 | 0.13 [−0.35; 0.61] |
Side (m) | −0.23 ± 0.87 | −0.27 ± 0.92 | −0.15 ± 0.51 | −0.23 ± 0.54 | −0.04 ± 0.29 | 0.896 | −0.05 [−0.43; 0.32] |
Attack Angle (°) | −4.23 ± 2.42 | −3.66 ± 1.86 | −5.11 ± 2.83 | −4.57 ± 2.00 | 0.02 ± 1.08 | 0.144 | 0.01 [−0.45; 0.47] |
Face Angle (°) | −0.69 ± 3.45 | −1.39 ± 3.85 | −1.18 ± 2.36 | −0.77 ± 1.93 | 1.12 ± 1.62 | 0.39 | 0.35 [−0.16; 0.86] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 43.30 ± 8.19 | 45.00 ± 9.33 | 43.15 ± 9.17 | 45.18 ± 7.39 | 1.33 ± 5.29 | 0.774 | 0.15 [−0.46; 0.77] |
35 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 48.29 ± 36.70 | 57.2 ± 31.59 | 60.08 ± 27.64 | 77.74 ± 19.33 | 8.75 ± 14.5 | <0.001 | 0.27 [−0.18; 0.73] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 45.81 ± 4.41 | 44.42 ± 4.97 | 46.52 ± 2.84 | 46.87 ± 2.01 | 1.61 ± 1.80 | 0.002 | 0.39 [−0.05; 0.82] |
Carry Distance (m) | 36.6 ± 8.44 | 25.80 ± 6.90 | 30.37 ± 5.41 | 33.26 ± 3.46 | 2.17 ± 2.99 | 0.005 | 0.32 [−0.12; 0.75] |
Side (m) | 0.38 ± 1.46 | 0.08 ± 1.47 | −0.20 ± 0.96 | 0.28 ± 0.83 | 0.78 ± 0.57 | 0.422 | 0.60 [0.16; 1.03] |
Attack Angle (°) | −3.54 ± 2.58 | −3.31 ± 2.08 | −5.25 ± 2.42 | −4.34 ± 1.44 | 0.87 ± 1.40 | 0.222 | 0.37 [−0.23; 0.97] |
Face Angle (°) | 0.51 ± 3.62 | 0.29 ± 3.18 | −0.94 ± 2.24 | 0.60 ± 1.66 | 1.58 ± 1.53 | 0.49 | 0.53 [0.02; 1.04] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 42.14 ± 8.43 | 45.37 ± 7.02 | 43.72 ± 5.28 | 44.62 ± 5.53 | −3.93 ± 3.62 | 0.289 | −0.56 [−1.08; −0.04] |
50 m Distance | |||||||
Score (points) | 43.03 ± 33.01 | 52.33 ± 29.95 | 55.70 ± 31.68 | 64.22 ± 29.49 | −0.78 ± 15.6 | 0.05 | −0.02 [−0.51; 0.47] |
Club Speed (m·s−1) | 57.21 ± 4.37 | 55.83 ± 3.83 | 58.68 ± 3.74 | 57.08 ± 2.35 | −0.15 ± 1.85 | 0.012 | −0.04 [−0.52; 0.45] |
Carry Distance (m) | 42.00 ± 9.41 | 42.20 ± 8.59 | 45.20 ± 6.84 | 46.64 ± 7.08 | 1.29 ± 3.86 | 0.204 | 0.15 [−0.31; 0.61] |
Side (m) | 1.07 ± 3.10 | 0.31 ± 2.55 | −0.40 ± 4.96 | 0.28 ± 1.33 | 1.44 ± 1.73 | 0.825 | 0.45 [−0.09; 0.99] |
Attack Angle (°) | −3.57 ± 2.96 | −3.20 ± 2.50 | −4.91 ± 1.71 | −4.19 ± 1.91 | 0.12 ± 1.28 | 0.118 | 0.05 [−0.46; 0.56] |
Face Angle (°) | 1.38 ± 3.64 | 0.58 ± 4.06 | −0.36 ± 2.36 | −0.10 ± 2.06 | 0.99 ± 1.44 | 0.191 | 0.29 [−0.13; 0.72] |
Dynamic Loft (°) | 40.91 ± 9.88 | 44.65 ± 9.11 | 44.38 ± 3.32 | 45.18 ± 3.14 | −2.90 ± 3.34 | 0.77 | −0.37 [−0.80; 0.06] |
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Valença, M.; Coutinho, D.; Schöllhorn, W.; Ribeiro, N.; Santos, S. Investigating the Effects of Differential Learning on Golfers’ Pitching Performance as a Function of Handicap. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912550
Valença M, Coutinho D, Schöllhorn W, Ribeiro N, Santos S. Investigating the Effects of Differential Learning on Golfers’ Pitching Performance as a Function of Handicap. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912550
Chicago/Turabian StyleValença, Miguel, Diogo Coutinho, Wolfgang Schöllhorn, Nélson Ribeiro, and Sara Santos. 2022. "Investigating the Effects of Differential Learning on Golfers’ Pitching Performance as a Function of Handicap" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912550