Evidence of Concurrent Stunting and Obesity among Children under 2 Years from Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Backgrounds in the Era of the Integrated Nutrition Programme in South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Setting and Population
2.3. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
2.4. Data Collection and Tools
2.4.1. Socio-Demographic Variables
2.4.2. Anthropometric Variables
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Mothers
3.2. Prevalence of Stunting and/or Obesity
3.3. The Relationship of Stunting, Overweight, and Obesity, and CSO with Covariates
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | All n = 400 | Frequency n | Percentage % |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Boys | 180 | 45 |
Girls | 220 | 55 | |
Age categories (months) | 0–5 | 155 | 39 |
6–11 | 153 | 38 | |
≥12 | 92 | 23 | |
Birth weight (grams) | <2500 | 79 | 20 |
≥2500 | 321 | 80 | |
Baby born full term | No | 79 | 20 |
Yes | 321 | 80 | |
Place of delivery | Hospital | 200 | 50 |
Clinic | 153 | 38 | |
Home | 47 | 12 | |
Birth order | First | 91 | 23 |
Middle | 195 | 49 | |
Last | 114 | 28 |
Variables | All n = 400 | n | % |
---|---|---|---|
Mothers’ Age (years) | <30 | 250 | 63 |
≥30 | 150 | 37 | |
Parity | 1–2 | 253 | 63 |
>2 | 147 | 37 | |
Obstetric complications | No | 282 | 70 |
Yes | 118 | 30 | |
Marital status | Single | 292 | 73 |
Married | 56 | 14 | |
Divorced | 52 | 13 | |
Education level | No education | 72 | 18 |
Primary education | 50 | 13 | |
Secondary education | 158 | 40 | |
Completed grade 12 | 58 | 15 | |
Tertiary | 62 | 16 | |
Employment status | Employed | 83 | 21 |
Unemployed | 317 | 79 | |
Household head | Self | 138 | 35 |
Spouse | 53 | 13 | |
Parents | 183 | 46 | |
Grandparents | 16 | 4 | |
Relatives | 10 | 3 | |
Household members | <5 | 98 | 24 |
≥5 | 302 | 76 | |
Household income (monthly) | <R1000 ($61.70) | 61 | 15 |
R1001–R5000 ($61.76–308.40) | 61 | 15 | |
R5001–R10,000 ($308.56–617.00) | 109 | 27 | |
R10,001–R15,000 ($617.06–925.50) | 93 | 23 | |
>R15,000 ($925.50) | 76 | 19 | |
Type of house | Mud/shack | 77 | 19 |
RDP | 45 | 11 | |
Brick | 278 | 70 | |
Electricity access | No | 68 | 17 |
Yes | 332 | 83 | |
Water access | No | 121 | 30 |
Yes | 279 | 70 | |
Refrigerator use | No | 77 | 19 |
Yes | 323 | 81 | |
Type of toilet | Pit | 338 | 84 |
Flush | 62 | 16 |
Malnutrition Indicators | All n = 400 | Boys n= 180 | Girls n = 220 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (months) | 8 (4; 11) | 8 (4; 12) | 8 (4; 10) | 0.462 |
Weight (g) | 10 (6.9; 11.3) | 10 (7; 11.6) | 9 (6.8; 11.2) | 0.234 |
Height (cm) | 65 (55; 70) | 66 (56; 72) | 64 (54; 69) | 0.139 |
LAZ—mean | −1.36 (−4.61; 1.17) | −1.54 (−4.95; 1.37) | −1.21 (−4.44; 1.03) | 0.127 0.975 |
Normal | 111 (28) | 50 (28) | 61 (28) | |
Stunting | 202 (51) | 90 (50) | 112 (51) | |
Tallness | 87 (22) | 41 (22) | 47 (21) | |
BAZ—mean | 3.38 (1.48; 5.24) | 3.38 (1.52; 4.76) | 3.38 (1.46; 5.43) | 0.988 0.191 |
Normal | 61 (16) | 21 (12) | 20 (19) | |
Thinness | 16 (4) | 10 (6) | 6 (3) | |
Overweight risk | 51 (13) | 22 (13) | 29 (13) | |
Overweight | 51 (13) | 27 (15) | 24 (11) | |
Obesity | 212 (54) | 95 (54) | 117 (54) |
Malnutrition Indicators | 0–5 Months n = 155 | 6–11 Months n = 153 | ≥12 Months n = 92 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Weight (g) | 6 (4.9; 7.2) | 9 (8.4; 10.2) | 15 (12.4; 18.4) | 0.001 *** |
Height (cm) | 56 (51; 60) | 64 (57; 69) | 81 (68; 93) | 0.001 *** |
LAZ—mean | −1.51 (−3.62; 0.46) | −2.23 (−5.24; 0.17) | 0.35 (−4.89; 4.18) | 0.001 *** 0.001 *** |
Normal | 66 (43) | 34 (22) | 11 (12) | |
Stunting | 72 (46) | 98 (64) | 32 (35) | |
Tallness | 17 (11) | 21 (14) | 49 (53) | |
BAZ—mean | 2.24 (0.52; 3.77) | 3.66 (2.02; 5.74) | 4.79 (2.68; 6.94) | 0.001 *** 0.001 *** |
Normal | 42 (28) | 10 (6) | 9 (10) | |
Thinness | 4 (3) | 12 (8) | (0) | |
Overweight risk | 27 (18) | 15 (10) | 9 (10) | |
Overweight | 21 (14) | 19 (13) | 11 (12) | |
Obesity | 55 (37) | 95 (63) | 62 (68) |
Over Nutrition Conditions | Stunting | p-Value | n |
---|---|---|---|
Obesity | 0.576 | 0.001 *** | 223 |
Overweight/obesity | 0.445 | 0.001 *** | 263 |
Overweight | 0.244 | 0.036 ** | 74 |
Parameter | OR (95CI%) | AOR (95 CI%) for Gender | AOR (95 CI%) for Gender and Age |
---|---|---|---|
CSO | |||
Employed (yes) | 0.35 (0.16; 0.80) ** | 0.34 (0.15; 0.81) ** | 0.34 (0.14; 0.78) ** |
Mother’s age (>29 years) | 0.75 (0.48; 1.16) | 0.75 (0.48; 1.16) | 0.72 (0.46; 1.14) |
Education level | |||
No education | 1 [Reference] | ||
Tertiary | 0.48 (0.16; 1.42) | 0.47 (0.16; 1.40) | 0.44 (0.14; 1.36) |
Completed grade 12 | 0.46 (0.17; 1.23) | 0.46 (0.17; 1.21) | 0.48 (0.17; 1.32) |
Secondary school | 0.53 (0.22; 1.30) | 0.53 (0.21; 1.30) | 0.58 (0.20; 1.32) |
Primary school | 0.38 (0.14; 1.02) * | 0.38 (0.14; 1.02) * | 0.39 (0.14; 1.09) * |
Household Head | |||
Self | 1 [Reference] | ||
Grandparents/Relatives | 0.53 (0.19; 1.42) | 0.53 (0.19; 1.41) | 0.62 (0.23; 1.70) |
Parents | 0.81 (0.46; 1.42) | 0.81 (0.46; 1.41) | 0.80 (0.45; 1.42) |
Spouse | 0.89 (0.37; 2.02) | 0.86 (0.37; 2.01) | 0.81 (0.34; 1.96) |
Type of house | |||
Mud/shack | 1 [Reference] | ||
Brick | 1.27 (0.52; 3.15) | 1.27 (0.51; 3.13) | 1.20 (0.47; 3.07) |
RDP | 0.90 (0.34; 2.38) | 0.90 (0.34; 2.37) | 0.87 (0.31; 2.39) |
Household size (≥5) | 0.65 (0.28; 1.52) | 0.65 (0.28; 1.54) | 0.56 (0.23; 1.36) |
Number of children (≥2) | 1.07 (0.49; 2.35) | 1.06 (0.48; 2.33) | 1.11 (0.49; 2.49) |
Water access (yes) | 2.28 (1.25; 4.12) ** | 2.33 (1.27; 4.27) ** | 2.47 (1.32; 4.63) ** |
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Modjadji, P.; Masilela, L.N.; Cele, L.; Mathibe, M.; Mphekgwana, P.M. Evidence of Concurrent Stunting and Obesity among Children under 2 Years from Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Backgrounds in the Era of the Integrated Nutrition Programme in South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912501
Modjadji P, Masilela LN, Cele L, Mathibe M, Mphekgwana PM. Evidence of Concurrent Stunting and Obesity among Children under 2 Years from Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Backgrounds in the Era of the Integrated Nutrition Programme in South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912501
Chicago/Turabian StyleModjadji, Perpetua, Lucy Nomsa Masilela, Lindiwe Cele, Mmampedi Mathibe, and Peter Modupi Mphekgwana. 2022. "Evidence of Concurrent Stunting and Obesity among Children under 2 Years from Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Backgrounds in the Era of the Integrated Nutrition Programme in South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912501