Effects of Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility on COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage: A Census-Tract Level Study in Milwaukee County, USA
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Index of Social Vulnerability
2.2. Vaccination Rates by Race/Ethnicity, Doses, and in Areas of Different Social Vulnerability
2.3. Spatial Accessibility to Vaccination Clinics
2.4. Modeling Vaccination Rates by Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility
3. Results
3.1. Disparate Vaccination Rates by Race/Ethnicity, Doses, and Social Vulnerability
3.2. Effects of Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility on Vaccination Rates
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Eigen Value & Variance of the Principal Components | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Principal Components | |||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Eigen Value | 6.48 | 4.47 | 3.79 | 2.26 | 2.04 |
Proportion Var | 0.26 | 0.18 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.08 |
Cumulative Var | 0.26 | 0.44 | 0.59 | 0.68 | 0.76 |
Variables and Their Loadings to the Principal Components | |||||
people whose income is below poverty in the past 12 months (%) | 0.80 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.08 | 0.28 |
5+ years who speak English less than well (%) | 0.02 | 0.90 | 0.04 | 0.24 | −0.01 |
25+ years with less than high school education (%) | 0.40 | 0.77 | 0.34 | 0.05 | −0.04 |
civilian noninstitutionalized population with disability (%) | 0.54 | 0.04 | 0.20 | −0.08 | −0.63 |
median household income in past 12 months in 2019 ($) | 0.80 | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.01 | −0.04 |
unemployed civilian labor force (%) | 0.54 | 0.05 | 0.62 | −0.03 | −0.03 |
renter occupied units (%) | 0.88 | 0.20 | −0.10 | 0.01 | 0.15 |
multi-unit housing units (%) | 0.73 | 0.23 | −0.46 | 0.04 | 0.11 |
mobile homes (%) | −0.02 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.16 | −0.24 |
16+ years workers without vehicle (%) | 0.80 | 0.03 | 0.14 | −0.06 | 0.20 |
16+ years workers who take public transit (%) | 0.74 | −0.04 | 0.30 | −0.07 | 0.10 |
single parent households (%) | 0.42 | 0.20 | 0.82 | −0.02 | 0.05 |
3+ years enrolled in schools (%) | 0.30 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.78 |
occupied housing units with more than one person per room (%) | 0.21 | 0.59 | 0.37 | 0.35 | 0.14 |
population with no health insurance coverage (%) | 0.25 | 0.87 | 0.10 | −0.12 | 0.06 |
households with no internet access (%) | 0.68 | 0.45 | 0.31 | −0.04 | −0.18 |
people in female householder families with no health insurance (%) | 0.24 | 0.49 | 0.47 | −0.21 | −0.02 |
population 65 years and older (%) | −0.33 | −0.34 | −0.29 | −0.01 | −0.62 |
population 17 years and younger (%) | 0.03 | 0.32 | 0.87 | 0.06 | 0.02 |
Hispanic population * (%) | −0.07 | 0.95 | −0.09 | −0.09 | 0.01 |
non-Hispanic black population * (%) | 0.58 | −0.26 | 0.69 | −0.05 | 0.04 |
Asian population * (%) | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.98 | 0.02 |
population of non-Hispanic other race * (%) | −0.08 | 0.00 | −0.09 | 0.97 | 0.02 |
group quarter population * (%) | 0.23 | −0.14 | −0.43 | 0.06 | 0.59 |
vacant housing units * (%) | 0.75 | −0.02 | 0.36 | −0.09 | 0.11 |
Vaccination Rates (%) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Doses | One or More Doses | One Dose | Two Doses | Three or More Doses | |||||||||
Areas | Whole County | High SVI Areas | Low SVI Areas | Whole County | High SVI Areas | Low SVI Areas | Whole County | High SVI Areas | Low SVI Areas | Whole County | High SVI Areas | Low SVI Areas | |
Race | Blacks | 37 | 34 (29) | 43 (41) | 6 | 6 (6) | 6 (6) | 22 | 21 (18) | 25 (24) | 9 | 7 (5) | 12 (11) |
Hispanics | 49 | 51 (47) | 47 (47) | 7 | 8 (8) | 6 (7) | 32 | 34 (32) | 28 (29) | 10 | 8 (7) | 13 (12) | |
Other | 77 | 65 (53) | 82 (82) | 8 | 9 (7) | 7 (8) | 44 | 45 (39) | 40 (43) | 25 | 11 (7) | 36 (32) | |
Whites | 60 | 50 (37) | 61 (61) | 5 | 6 (4) | 5 (5) | 26 | 26 (22) | 26 (26) | 29 | 18 (10) | 30 (30) | |
Total population | 53 | 45 (40) | 60 (58) | 6 | 7 (6) | 5 (5) | 27 | 28 (26) | 27 (27) | 20 | 10 (7) | 28 (25) |
Dependent Variables | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | Lag | OLS | Lag | OLS | Lag | OLS | Lag | |
Overall social vulnerability index | −0.007 | −0.001 | 0.059 *** | 0.046 *** | 0.025 *** | 0.020 *** | −0.085 *** | −0.024 *** |
Clinic-to-population ratio | 0.134 *** | 0.088 *** | 0.038 | 0.041 | 0.142 *** | 0.110 *** | 0.189 *** | 0.073 ** |
Shortest travel distance | −0.021 | −0.024 | −0.050 | −0.050 | −0.038 | −0.035 | 0.015 | −0.009 |
Adjusted/pseudo R2 | 0.093 | 0.254 | 0.126 | 0.178 | 0.096 | 0.175 | 0.295 | 0.623 |
ρ | 0.489 *** | 0.291 *** | 0.344 *** | 0.745 *** | ||||
PC1 (SES) | −0.106 *** | −0.089 *** | 0.076 *** | 0.061 *** | −0.038 *** | −0.035 *** | −0.287 *** | −0.213 *** |
PC2 (Hispanics) | 0.022 * | 0.016 | 0.105 *** | 0.081 *** | 0.085 *** | 0.078 *** | −0.117 *** | −0.080 *** |
PC3 (Blacks) | −0.073 *** | −0.055 *** | 0.067 *** | 0.059 *** | −0.007 | −0.006 | −0.225 *** | −0.147 *** |
Clinic-to-population ratio | 0.020 | 0.016 | 0.052 | 0.052 | 0.076 *** | 0.072 *** | −0.048 | −0.053 |
Shortest travel distance | −0.004 | −0.009 | −0.034 | −0.038 | −0.017 | −0.018 | 0.023 | 0.010 |
Adjusted/pseudo R2 | 0.295 | 0.328 | 0.145 | 0.187 | 0.212 | 0.228 | 0.667 | 0.714 |
ρ | 0.228 *** | 0.246 *** | 0.082 | 0.384 *** |
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Xu, Z.; Jiang, B. Effects of Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility on COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage: A Census-Tract Level Study in Milwaukee County, USA. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12304. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912304
Xu Z, Jiang B. Effects of Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility on COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage: A Census-Tract Level Study in Milwaukee County, USA. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12304. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912304
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Zengwang, and Bin Jiang. 2022. "Effects of Social Vulnerability and Spatial Accessibility on COVID-19 Vaccination Coverage: A Census-Tract Level Study in Milwaukee County, USA" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12304. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912304