The Leading Factors of Obesity and Severe Obesity in Korean Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Surveying the Amount of Time Spent Sitting and Walking
2.3. Daily Energy Intake Examination
2.4. BMI Assessment
2.5. Data Analysis
2.6. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Zeigler, Z. COVID-19 self-quarantine and weight gain risk factors in adults. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2021, 10, 423–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bhutani, S.; van Dellen, M.R.; Cooper, J.A. Longitudinal weight gain and related risk behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in adults in the US. Nutrients 2021, 13, 671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Di Renzo, L.; Gualtieri, P.; Pivari, F.; Soldati, L.; Attinà, A.; Cinelli, G.; Leggeri, C.; Caparello, G.; Barrea, L.; Scerbo, F.; et al. Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID-19 lockdown: An Italian survey. J. Transl. Med. 2020, 18, 229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khan, M.A.; Moverley Smith, J.E. ”Covibesity”, a new pandemic. Obes. Med. 2020, 19, e100282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zachary, Z.; Bianna, F.; Brianna, L.; Garrett, P.; Jade, W.; Alyssa, D.; Mikayla, K. Self-quarantine and weight gain related risk factors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 2020, 14, 210–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Puhl, R.M.; Himmelstein, M.S.; Pearl, R.L. Weight stigma as a psycho- social contributor to obesity. Am. Psychol. 2020, 75, 274–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhutani, S.; Cooper, J.A. COVID-19-related home confinement in adults: Weight gain risks and opportunities. Obesity 2020, 28, 1576–1577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, J.; Tian, C.; Chen, Y.; Zhu, C.; Chi, H.; Li, J. Impacts Obesity aggravates COVID-19: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Med. Virol. 2021, 93, 2662–2674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albashir, A.A.D. The potential of obesity on COVID-19. Clin. Med. 2020, 20, e109–e113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aghili, S.M.M.; Ebrahimpur, M.; Arjmand, B.; Shadman, Z.; Pejman Sani, M.; Qorbani, M.; Larijani, B.; Payab, M. Obesity in COVID-19 era, implications for mechanisms, comorbidities, and prognosis: A review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Obes. 2021, 45, 998–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Leeuw, A.J.M.; Oude Luttikhuis, M.A.M.; Wellen, A.C.; Müller, C.; Calkhoven, C.F. Obesity and its impact on COVID-19. J. Mol. Med. 2021, 99, 899–915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gregório, M.J.; Santos, A.; Graça, P. Obesity and COVID-19: Present and Future. Acta Med. Port. 2021, 34, 329–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- The Lancet Gastroenterology Hepatology. Obesity: Another ongoing pandemic. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 6, 411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rubio Herrera, M.A.; Bretón Lesmes, I. Obesity in the COVID era: A global health challenge. Endocrinol. Diabetes Nutr. 2021, 68, 123–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sánchez, E.; Lecube, A.; Bellido, D.; Monereo, S.; Malagón, M.M.; Tinahones, F.J. On behalf of the spanish society for the study of obesity. Leading factors for weight gain during COVID-19 lockdown in a Spanish population: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients 2021, 13, 894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chew, H.S.J.; Lopez, V. Global impact of covid-19 on weight and weight-related behaviors in the adult population: A scoping review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheikh, I.L.; Osaili, T.M.; Mohamad, M.N.; Al Marzouqi, A.; Jarrar, A.H.; Abu Jamous, D.O.; Magriplis, E.; Ali, H.I.; Al Sabbah, H.; Hasan, H.; et al. Eating habits and lifestyle during COVID-19 lockdown in the United Arab Emirates: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López-Moreno, M.; López, M.T.I.; Miguel, M.; Garcés-Rimón, M. Physical and psychological effects related to food habits and lifestyle changes derived from Covid-19 home confinement in the Spanish population. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flanagan, E.W.; Bey, R.A.; Fearnbach, S.N.; Altazan, A.D.; Martin, C.K.; Redman, L.M. The impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders on health behaviors in adults. Obesity 2021, 29, 438–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katsoulis, M.; Pasea, L.; Lai, A.G.; Dobson, R.J.B.; Denaxas, S.; Hemingway, H.; Banerjee, A. Obesity during the COVID-19 pandemic: Both cause of high risk and potential effect of lockdown? A population-based electronic health record study. Public Health 2021, 191, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Survey Raw Data. Available online: https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/sub03/sub03_02_05.do (accessed on 15 April 2022).
- Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Conducting Investigations. Available online: https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/sub04/sub04_02_02.do?classType=4 (accessed on 15 April 2022).
- Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data Analysis Guidelines. Available online: https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/sub03/sub03_06_02.do (accessed on 15 April 2022).
- Deschasaux-Tanguy, M.; Druesne-Pecollo, N.; Esseddik, Y.; de Edelenyi, F.S.; Allès, B.; Andreeva, V.A.; Baudry, J.H.; Deschamps, V.; Egnell, M.; Fezeu, L.K.; et al. Diet and physical activity during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown (March–May 2020): Results from the French NutriNet-Santé cohort study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2021, 113, 924–938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kriaucioniene, V.; Bagdonaviciene, L.; Rodríguez-Pérez, C.; Petkeviciene, J. Associations between changes in health behaviours and body weight during the COVID-19 quarantine in Lithuania: The Lithuanian COVIDiet Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bashir, M.A.; Yahaya, A.I.; Muhammad, M.; Yusuf, A.H.; Mukhtar, I.G. Prevalence of central obesity in Nigeria: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health 2022, 206, 87–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooper, A.J.; Gupta, S.R.; Moustafa, A.F.; Chao, A.M. Sex/Gender Differences in Obesity Prevalence, Comorbidities, and Treatment. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2021, 10, 458–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahirwar, R.; Mondal, P.R. Prevalence of obesity in India: A systematic review. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. 2019, 13, 318–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhu, Q.; Li, M.; Ji, Y.; Shi, Y.; Zhou, J.; Li, Q.; Qin, R.; Zhuang, X. “Stay-at-home” lifestyle effect on weight gain during the COVID-19 outbreak con- finement in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sidor, A.; Rzymski, P. Dietary choices and habits during COVID-19 lockdown: Experience from Poland. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hales, C.M.; Carroll, M.D.; Fryar, C.D.; Ogden, C.L. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity among adults: United States, 2017–2018. NCHS Data Brief 2020, 360, 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Park, S.; Shin, J.; Baek, S. Analysis of health-related behaviors of adult korean women at normal BMI with different body image perceptions: Results from the 2013–2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ammar, A.; Brach, M.; Trabelsi, K.; Chtourou, H.; Boukhris, O.; Masmoudi, L.; Bouaziz, B.; Bentlage, E.; How, D.; Ahmed, M.; et al. Effects of COVID-19 Home Confinement on Eating Behaviour and Physical Activity: Results of the ECLB-COVID19 International Online Survey. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alfawaz, H.; Amer, O.E.; Aljumah, A.A.; Aldisi, D.A.; Enani, M.A.; Aljohani, N.J.; Alotaibi, N.H.; Alshingetti, N.; Alomar, S.Y.; Khattak, M.N.K.; et al. Effects of home quarantine during COVID-19 lockdown on physical activity and dietary habits of adults in Saudi Arabia. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 5904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mitacchione, G.; Schiavone, M.; Curnis, A.; Arca, M.; Antinori, S.; Gasperetti, A.; Mascioli, G.; Severino, P.; Sabato, F.; Caracciolo, M.M.; et al. Impact of prior statin use on clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients: Data from tertiary referral hospitals during COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. J. Clin. Lipidol. 2021, 15, 68–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variables | Year 2019 | Year 2020 | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % (SE) | N | % (SE) | N | % (SE) | |
Sex | ||||||
Male | 2237 | 49.8 (0.6) | 1974 | 49.6 (0.7) | 4311 | 49.7 (3.0) |
Female | 3128 | 50.2 (0.6) | 2620 | 50.4 (0.7) | 5748 | 50.3 (3.0) |
Total | 5465 | 100.0 (0.0) | 4594 | 100.0 (0.0) | 10,059 | 100.0 (0.0) |
Age group | ||||||
19–29 | 609 | 17.4 (0.8) | 592 | 17.3 (0.9) | 1201 | 17.3 (0.6) |
30–39 | 799 | 17.1 (1.0) | 590 | 16.5 (1.1) | 1389 | 16.8 (0.7) |
40–49 | 979 | 19.4 (0.9) | 759 | 19.0 (1.0) | 1738 | 19.2 (0.7) |
50–59 | 1002 | 19.9 (0.7) | 820 | 19.7 (0.8) | 1822 | 19.8 (0.2) |
60–69 | 995 | 12.9 (0.7) | 868 | 13.4 (0.7) | 1863 | 13.2 (0.5) |
≥70 | 1081 | 13.3 (0.9) | 965 | 14.0 (1.0) | 2046 | 13.7 (0.6) |
Total | 5465 | 100.0 (0.0) | 4594 | 100.0 (0.0) | 10,059 | 100.0 (0.0) |
Variables | 2019 | 2020 | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SE | Mean ± SE | ||||
BMI (kg/m2) | 23.90 ± 0.06 | 24.20 ± 0.68 | 0.001 | ||
Body weight division, N, % (SE) | |||||
Normal (18 ≤ BMI < 25) | 3597 | 66.2 (0.8) | 2821 | 62.4 (0.9) | 0.005 |
Obesity (25 ≤ BMI < 35) | 1551 | 28.2 (0.8) | 1404 | 30.7 (0.8) | |
Severe obesity (35 ≤ BMI) | 287 | 5.5 (0.4) | 288 | 6.9 (0.5) | |
Total | 5435 | 100.0 (0.0) | 4513 | 100.0 (0.0) | |
Daily sitting time | 8.56 ± 0.06 | 8.76 ± 0.06 | 0.119 | ||
Daily walking time | 0.65 ± 0.02 | 0.66 ± 0.02 | 0.408 | ||
Daily energy intake (Kcal) | 1926.65 ± 16.30 | 1900.33 ± 16.00 | 0.077 |
Variables | B | SE | 95% CI | t | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | ||||||
Intercept | −1.517 | 0.141 | −1.794 | −1.241 | −10.788 | 0.000 | |||
Year | |||||||||
2020 | 0.310 | 0.130 | 0.055 | 0.565 | 2.392 | 0.017 | 1.172 | 1.034 | 1.329 |
2019 | Referent group | ||||||||
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 0.816 | 0.066 | 0.686 | 0.947 | 12.317 | 0.000 | 2.262 | 1.985 | 2.577 |
Female | Referent group | ||||||||
Age groups | |||||||||
19–29 | −0.482 | 0.119 | −0.717 | −0.247 | −4.041 | 0.000 | 0.617 | 0.488 | 0.781 |
30–39 | 0.031 | 0.122 | −0.208 | 0.271 | 0.258 | 0.797 | 1.032 | 0.812 | 1.311 |
40–49 | 0.021 | 0.119 | −0.212 | 0.254 | 0.176 | 0.860 | 1.021 | 0.809 | 1.289 |
50–59 | 0.108 | 0.111 | −0.112 | 0.327 | 0.964 | 0.336 | 1.114 | 0.894 | 1.387 |
60–69 | 0.153 | 0.113 | −0.069 | 0.376 | 1.354 | 0.177 | 1.166 | 0.933 | 1.457 |
≥70 | Referent group | ||||||||
Daily sitting time | 0.023 | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.040 | 2.651 | 0.008 | 1.023 | 1.006 | 1.041 |
Daily walking time | 0.125 | 0.032 | 0.062 | 0.188 | 3.908 | 0.000 | 1.133 | 1.064 | 1.207 |
Daily energy intake (Kcal) | −2.953 | 3.766 | 0.000 | 4.456 | −0.784 | 0.434 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.100 |
Variables | B | SE | 95% CI | t | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | ||||||
Intercept | −3.470 | 0.305 | −4.070 | −2.870 | −11.380 | 0.000 | |||
Year | |||||||||
2020 | 0.159 | 0.064 | 0.033 | 0.285 | 2.488 | 0.013 | 1.363 | 1.057 | 1.759 |
2019 | Referent group | ||||||||
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 0.617 | 0.129 | 0.363 | 0.870 | 4.790 | 0.000 | 1.853 | 1.438 | 2.386 |
Female | Referent group | ||||||||
Age groups | |||||||||
19–29 | 0.998 | 0.275 | 0.456 | 1.540 | 3.623 | 0.000 | 2.712 | 1.578 | 4.663 |
30–39 | 1.155 | 0.269 | 0.626 | 1.683 | 4.297 | 0.000 | 3.173 | 1.870 | 5.384 |
40–49 | 0.922 | 0.270 | 0.390 | 1.453 | 3.412 | 0.001 | 2.514 | 1.477 | 4.278 |
50–59 | 0.587 | 0.286 | 0.024 | 1.150 | 2.050 | 0.041 | 1.798 | 1.024 | 3.157 |
60–69 | 0.408 | 0.279 | −0.141 | 0.957 | 1.461 | 0.145 | 1.503 | 0.868 | 2.604 |
≥70 | Referent group | ||||||||
Daily sitting time | −0.004 | 0.018 | −0.038 | 0.031 | −0.201 | 0.841 | 0.996 | 0.962 | 1.032 |
Daily walking time | 0.107 | 0.074 | −0.040 | 0.253 | 1.434 | 0.153 | 1.113 | 0.961 | 1.288 |
Daily energy intake (Kcal) | 0.000 | 8.310 | 0.000 | 4.887 | −1.379 | 0.169 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.100 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lee, M.-N.; Choi, Y.-S.; Kim, S.-D. The Leading Factors of Obesity and Severe Obesity in Korean Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912214
Lee M-N, Choi Y-S, Kim S-D. The Leading Factors of Obesity and Severe Obesity in Korean Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912214
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Myung-Nam, Young-Soon Choi, and Sang-Dol Kim. 2022. "The Leading Factors of Obesity and Severe Obesity in Korean Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912214