A Systematic Review of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Urban Poor in Low- and Middle-Income Countries during the COVID-19 Pandemic through a Gendered Lens
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Databases, Search Strategies, and Selection Process
2.2. Quality Assessment, Data Extraction, and Synthesis
3. Results
3.1. Gender-Related Considerations Regarding Access to Water Facilities and Hygiene Practices during the COVID-19 Pandemic
During this pandemic, the majority of the community members are experiencing financial hardship. They barely have enough money to eat twice a day. How will they get soap to wash their hands?
I cannot imagine how residents would practice physical distancing and hygiene in a crowding environment and having insufficient water.
3.2. Considering Access to Basic Sanitation Facilities during the COVID-19 Pandemic with a Gendered Lens
3.3. Coping and Maladaptive Behaviors Associated with Poor Access to Water and Sanitation Facilities
3.4. Support System and Community Engagement to Improve Access to Water and Sanitation
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Supplementary File (Quality Assessment of the Studies)
Authors, Year | Study Type | S1. Are There Clear Research Questions? | S2. Do the Collected Data Allow for Addressing the Research Questions? | 4.1. Is the Sampling Strategy Relevant to Addressing the Research Question? | 4.2. Is the Sample Representative of the Target Population? | 4.3. Are the Measurements Appropriate? | 4.4. Is the Risk of Nonresponse Bias Low? | 4.5. Is the Statistical Analysis Appropriate to Answer the Research Question? |
Alawa et al., 2021 [48] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Ashraf et al., 2020 [49] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Auerbach et al., 2021 [50] | Quantitative | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Austrian et al., 2020 [25] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Hasan et al., 2021 [51] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Islam et al., 2021 [52] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Kar et al., 2021 [53] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Mamun and Fatima, 2021 [54] | Quantitative | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Mukhopadhyay, 2020 [55] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Nuwagaba et al., 2020 [56] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Shammi et al., 2020 [57] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Shermin et al., 2021 [58] | Quantitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
S1. Are there Clear Research Questions? | S2. Do the Collected Data Allow for Addressing the Research Questions? | 5.1. Is there An Adequate Rationale For Using a Mixed Methods Design to Address the Research Question? | 5.2. Are the Different Components of the Study Effectively Integrated to Answer the Research Question? | 5.3. Are the Outputs of the Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Components Adequately Interpreted? | 5.4. Are Divergences and Inconsistencies Between Quantitative and Qualitative Results Adequately Addressed? | 5.5. Do the Different Components of the Study Adhere to the Quality Criteria of Each Tradition of the Methods Involved? | ||
Napier-Raman et al., 2021 [44] | Mixed method | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Peteet et al., 2020 [45] | Mixed method | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Pongutta et al., 2021 [46] | Mixed method | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
S1. Are there Clear Research Questions? | S2. Do the Collected Data Allow for Addressing the Research Questions? | 1.1. Is the Qualitative Approach Appropriate to Answer the Research Question? | 1.2. Are the Qualitative Data Collection Methods Adequate to Address the Research Question? | 1.3. Are the Findings Adequately Derived from the Data? | 1.4. Is the Interpretation of Results Sufficiently Substantiated by Data? | 1.5. Is there Coherence Between Qualitative Data Sources, Collection, Analysis and Interpretation? | ||
Akter et al., 2021 [21] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Akter et al., 2021 [22] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Amdeselassie et al., 2020 [23] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Arora and Majumder, 2021 [24] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Azeez et al., 2020 [26] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Bercegol et al., 2020 [27] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Bhattacharya 2020 [28] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Cloethe et al., 2020 [29] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Collantes et al., 2020 [30] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Douedari et al., 2020 [31] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Ebekozien et al., 2021 [32] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Iwuoha et al., 2020 [33] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Jalil et al., 2021 [34] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Munajed and Ekren, 2020 [35] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Natnael et al., 2021 [36] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Nyashanu et al., 2020 [37] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Oluoch-Aridi et al., 2020 [38] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Parikh et al., 2020 [39] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Patel, 2020 [40] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Rashid et al., 2020 [41] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Sahu et al., 2020 [42] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Saldanha, 2020 [43] | Qualitative | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Wasdani et al., 2020 [47] | Qualitative | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y |
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Author, Year | Country | Urban Poor | N | Study Type | Data Collection | Major WASH Domains |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Akter et al., 2021 [21] | Bangladesh | Refugee | 66 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water, sanitation, and Hygiene |
Akter et al., 2021 [22] | Bangladesh | Slum dwellers | 42 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water, sanitation, and Hygiene |
Amdeselassie et al., 2020 [23] | Ethiopia | Slum dwellers | 16 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water and hygiene |
Arora et al., 2021 [24] | India | Women migrant worker | 5 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Sanitation |
Austrian et al., 2020 [25] | Kenya | Informal settlements | 2009 | Qualitative | Survey: mobile phones | Water and hygiene |
Azeez et al., 2020 [26] | India | Migrant women | 19 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Menstrual hygiene |
Bercegol et al., 2020 [27] | India | Slum | - | Qualitative | Telephonic in-depth interviews | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Bhattacharya et al., 2021 [28] | Bangladesh | Urban poor | - | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water |
Cloete et al., 2020 [29] | South Africa | Sex workers and homeless | 60 | Qualitative | Informant interview, focus group discussion | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Collantes et al., 2021 [30] | Philippines | Informal communities | - | Qualitative | Case study | Water and hygiene |
Douedari et al., 2020 [31] | Syria | Camp residents | 20 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water and hygiene |
Ebekozien et al., 2021 [32] | Nigeria | Informal settlement | 40 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Water and hygiene |
Iwuoha et al., 2020 [33] | Nigeria | Suburban slums | 49 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews and observation | Water and hygiene |
Jalil et al., 2021 [34] | Bangladesh | Hijra community | 22 | Qualitative | Telephonic in-depth interviews | Sanitation and hygiene |
Munajed et al., 2020 [35] | Syria | Refugee | 11 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Hygiene |
Natnael et al., 2021 [36] | Ethiopia | Taxi drivers | 417 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews and observation | Hygiene |
Nyashanu et al., 2020 [37] | South Africa | Informal settlement | 30 | Qualitative | In-depth interviews | Sanitation |
Oluoch-Aridi et al., 2020 [38] | Kenya | Informal settlement | 71 | Qualitative | Telephonic interviews | Hygiene |
Parikh et al., 2020 [39] | India, Indonesia | Informal settlement | - | Qualitative | Focus group discussion and transect walks | Water and hygiene |
Patel, 2020 [40] | India | Slums | - | Qualitative | Media reports analysis | Water and hygiene |
Rashid et al., 2020 [41] | Bangladesh | Slums | 51 | Qualitative | Telephonic in-depth interviews (IDIs) | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Sahu et al., 2020 [42] | India | Slum | - | Qualitative | Document analysis | Water and sanitation |
Saldanha, 2021 [43] | India | Slum | 1 | Qualitative | Narrative | Water and sanitation |
Napier-Raman et al., 2021 [44] | India | Slum | 122 | Mixed-Method | Rapid survey | Water |
Peteet et al., 2020 [45] | India | slums | 87 | Mixed-Method | Semi-structured interviews | Hygiene |
Pongutta et al., 2021 [46] | Thailand | Urban slums | 900 | Mixed-Method | Semi-structured interviews | Hygiene |
Wasdani et al., 2020 [47] | India | Slum | 6 | Qualitative | Case study | Sanitation |
Alawa et al., 2021 [48] | Somalia | Internally displaced people | 401 | Quantitative | Cross-sectional survey | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Ashraf et al., 2020 [49] | India | Migrant workers | 2657 | Quantitative | Surveys: telephonic | Sanitation and hygiene |
Auerbach et al., 2020 [50] | India | Slum | 321 | Quantitative | Telephonic survey | Water and sanitation |
Hasan et al., 2021 [51] | Bangladesh | Urban slum | 588 | Quantitative | Survey | Water and sanitation |
Islam et al., 2021 [52] | Bangladesh | Slum | 1303 | Quantitative | Online survey | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Kar et al., 2021 [53] | India | Urban Slum | 106 | Quantitative | Semi-structured questionnaire | Hygiene |
Mamun et al., 2020 [54] | Bangladesh | Slum | 434 | Quantitative | Survey | Hygiene |
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020 [55] | India | Slum | 282 | Quantitative | Telephonic survey | Hygiene |
Nuwagaba et al., 2020 [56] | Uganda | Slum | 359 | Quantitative | Structured questionnaires | Water and hygiene |
Shammi et al., 2020 [57] | Bangladesh | Refugees | - | Quantitative | Field survey | Water, sanitation, and hygiene |
Shermin et al., 2021 [58] | Bangladesh | Slum | 1134 | Quantitative | Survey | Sanitation |
Author, Year | Country | Population (Urban Poor) | Study Design | Total Urban Poor (N) | Access to Water During the COVID-19 Pandemic | Access to Sanitation during the COVID-19 Pandemic | Hygiene Practices Related to COVID-19 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Supply of Water to a Common Shared Point n (%) | Supply of Water to Household n (%) | No Supply of Clean Water n (%) | Public/Community Toilet n (%) | Individual Household Toilet, n (%) | Open Defecation n (%) | Lack of Access to Soap n (%) | Lacked Use of Mask n (%) | No Handwashing Practices n (%) | |||||
Alawa et al., 2021 [48] | Somalia | Internally displaced | Cross-sectional | 401 | 362 (90) | 39 (10) | 0 | NR | NR | NR | 256 (64) | 373 (93) | 109 (27) |
Ashraf et al., 2020 [49] | India | Migrant workers | Cross-sectional | 2044 | 481 (24) | 1563 (76) | 220 (11) | 1235 (60) | 589 (29) | NR | NR | 307 (15) | |
Austrian et al., 2020 [25] | Kenya | Informal settlements | Cross-sectional | 1811 | 911 (50) | 900 (50) | 0 | 1178 (59) | 718 (36) | 105 (5) | NR | NR | 58 (3) |
Hasan et al., 2021 [51] | Bangladesh | Slum | Secondary data | 588 | 559 (95) | 29 (5) | 0 | 559 (95) | 29 (5) | 0 | NR | NR | NR |
Islam et al., 2021 [52] | Bangladesh | Slum | Online survey | 50 | NR | NR | NR | 31 (62) | 19 (38) | 0 | NR | 23 (46) | 25 (50) |
Kar et al., 2021 [53] | India | Urban Slum | Cross-sectional | 106 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 10 (9) | 7 (7) | 10 (9) |
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020 [55] | India | Slum | Cross-sectional | 282 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 14 (5) | NR |
Nuwagaba et al., 2020 [56] | Uganda | Slum | Cross-sectional | 112 | 82 (73) | 0 | 30 (27) | NR | NR | NR | 47 (42) | NR | 16 (14) |
Pongutta et al., 2021 [46] | Thailand | Slums | Cross-sectional | 900 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 38 (4) | 76 (8) |
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Sahoo, K.C.; Dubey, S.; Dash, G.C.; Sahoo, R.K.; Sahay, M.R.; Negi, S.; Mahapatra, P.; Bhattacharya, D.; Sahoo, B.; Pani, S.P.; et al. A Systematic Review of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Urban Poor in Low- and Middle-Income Countries during the COVID-19 Pandemic through a Gendered Lens. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11845. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911845
Sahoo KC, Dubey S, Dash GC, Sahoo RK, Sahay MR, Negi S, Mahapatra P, Bhattacharya D, Sahoo B, Pani SP, et al. A Systematic Review of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Urban Poor in Low- and Middle-Income Countries during the COVID-19 Pandemic through a Gendered Lens. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):11845. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911845
Chicago/Turabian StyleSahoo, Krushna Chandra, Shubhankar Dubey, Girish Chandra Dash, Rakesh Kumar Sahoo, Mili Roopchand Sahay, Sapna Negi, Pranab Mahapatra, Debdutta Bhattacharya, Banamber Sahoo, Subhada Prasad Pani, and et al. 2022. "A Systematic Review of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Urban Poor in Low- and Middle-Income Countries during the COVID-19 Pandemic through a Gendered Lens" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 11845. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911845