A Changing Home: A Cross-Sectional Study on Environmental Degradation, Resettlement and Psychological Distress in a Western German Coal-Mining Region
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Concept of Solastalgia
1.2. Mining-Induced Environmental Degradation and Relocation
1.3. Lignite Mining in Germany
1.4. Study Aim
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Context and Area
2.2. Participants and Data Collection
2.3. Instrument and Development
- Sociodemographics: age, gender, education, marital status, (grand)children and residential situation (e.g., ownership of property, family heritage and ancestry).
- Environmental hazards: dust, noise, vibration, nocturnal illumination, traffic (five-point Likert scale: nearly always–never) and mining damages (yes/no).
- Place attachment: emotional connection, responsibility for people, desire or duty to preserve the place (five-point Likert scale: strongly agree–strongly disagree).
- Feelings about the changes and solastalgia: general attitude to mining, life satisfaction, economic benefits, fear of illnesses, loss of flora and fauna, building damages, social divisions and powerlessness (five-point Likert scale: strongly agree–strongly disagree).
- Resettlement process and distress: perceived social, financial, mental and physical impacts (five-point Likert scale: strongly agree–strongly disagree; yes/no).
- Activities in response to mining or resettlement (yes/no).
- Patient health questionnaire (PHQ-SADS): symptoms of generalized anxiety, depression and somatization.
Study Participants | Population Levels # | |
---|---|---|
n (% of Overall Population) | n | |
pit edge villages * | 322 | |
Wanlo | 195 (18) | 1087 |
Kaulhausen/Venrath | 76 (7) | 1146 |
Holzweiler | 48 (3) | 1400 |
others | 3 | |
old villages | 112 (21) | 540 |
(Keyenberg, Westrich **, Kuckum, Berverath) | ||
new villages *** | 173 (30) | 574 |
(named like old villages with appendix ‘neu’) |
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Sample Overview
3.2. Sociodemographics
3.3. Solastalgia and the Patient Health Questionnaire
3.4. Environmental Hazards
3.5. Place Attachment
3.6. Feelings about Changes
3.7. Resettlement Impacts
3.8. Activities
3.9. Comments of the Participants
- -
- Uncertainty about the future was a particularly important issue in all three groups. In the old villages, respondents were uncertain about whether their villages would be finally excavated or could be preserved, in the light of recent or expected political developments. In the new villages, a few participants expressed a desire to preserve their old villages, while many described the thought of strangers reoccupying their former homes as an enormous emotional burden, knowing that their resettlement would then have been unnecessary.
- -
- The feeling of being subject to environmental and political injustice was raised frequently and was often paired with frustration due to the lack of satisfactory advisory and support services.
- -
- Insecurity due to burglaries in abandoned neighboring houses was an important concern in the old villages, accompanied by perceived disturbances due to the presence of security forces, activists, the press and curious onlookers (referred to as “ghost village tourists”).
- -
- The perceived benefits of relocation (e.g., more age-appropriate and refurbished homes and closer proximity to the city), as well as the disadvantages (e.g., living on a large construction site for years, limited recreational activities and less access to recreational spaces) were described in more detail.
- -
- Moreover, concerns about environmental degradation and climate change and the perception that they are being fueled at one’s doorstep were raised.
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Implications and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Whitmee, S.; Haines, A.; Beyrer, C.; Boltz, F.; Capon, A.G.; de Souza Dias, B.F.; Yach, D. Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: Report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. Lancet 2015, 386, 1973–2028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clayton, S.; Manning, C.; Krygsman, K.; Speiser, M. Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance. American Psychological Association and ecoAmerica. 2017. Available online: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/03/mental-health-climate.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Willox, A.C.; Harper, S.L.; Ford, J.D.; Landman, K.; Houle, K.; Edge, V.L. “From this place and of this place:” Climate change, sense of place, and health in Nunatsiavut, Canada. Soc. Sci. Med. 2012, 75, 538–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Albrecht, G.; Sartore, G.-M.; Connor, L.; Higginbotham, N.; Freeman, S.; Kelly, B.; Stain, H.; Tonna, A.; Pollard, G. Solastalgia: The distress caused by environmental change. Australas. Psychiatry 2007, 15 (Suppl. S1), 95–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eisenman, D.; McCaffrey, S.; Donatello, I.; Marshal, G. An ecosystems and vulnerable populations perspective on solastalgia and psychological distress after a wildfire. EcoHealth 2015, 12, 602–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Comtesse, H.; Ertl, V.; Hengst, S.M.C.; Rosner, R.; Smid, G.E. Ecological Grief as a Response to Environmental Change: A Mental Health Risk or Functional Response? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galway, L.P.; Beery, T.; Jones-Casey, K.; Tasala, K. Mapping the solastalgia literature: A scoping review study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albrecht, G. ‘Solastalgia’. A new concept in health and identity. Philos. Act. Nat. 2005, 3, 41–55. Available online: https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.897723015186456 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Connor, L.; Albrecht, G.; Higginbotham, N.; Freeman, S.; Smith, W. Environmental change and human health in Upper Hunter communities of New South Wales, Australia. EcoHealth 2004, 1, SU47–SU58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canu, W.H.; Jameson, J.P.; Steele, E.H.; Denslow, M. Mountaintop removal coal mining and emergent cases of psychological disorder in Kentucky. Community Ment. Health J. 2017, 53, 802–810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordial, P.; Riding-Malon, R.; Lips, H. The effects of mountaintop removal coal mining on mental health, well-being, and community health in Central Appalachia. Ecopsychology 2012, 4, 201–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elser, H.; Goldman-Mellor, S.; Morello-Frosch, R.; Deziel, N.C.; Ranjbar, K.; Casey, J.A. Petro-riskscapes and environmental distress in West Texas: Community perceptions of environmental degradation, threats, and loss. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2020, 70, 101798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hendryx, M.; Innes-Wimsatt, K.A. Increased risk of depression for people living in coal mining areas of central Appalachia. Ecopsychology 2013, 5, 179–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Warsini, S.; Buettner, P.; Mills, J.; West, C.; Usher, K. The psychosocial impact of the environmental damage caused by the MT Merapi eruption on survivors in Indonesia. EcoHealth 2013, 11, 491–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, N.R.; Albrecht, G.A. Climate change threats to family farmers’ sense of place and mental wellbeing: A case study from the Western Australian Wheatbelt. Soc. Sci. Med. 2017, 175, 161–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McNamara, K.E.; Westoby, R. Solastalgia and the gendered nature of climate change: An example from Erub Island, Torres Strait. EcoHealth 2011, 8, 233–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tschakert, P.; Tutu, R.; Alcaro, A. Embodied experiences of environmental and climatic changes in landscapes of everyday life in Ghana. Emot. Space Soc. 2013, 7, 13–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tschakert, P.; Ellis, N.R.; Anderson, C.; Kelly, A.; Obeng, J. One thousand ways to experience loss: A systematic analysis of climate-related intangible harm from around the world. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2019, 55, 58–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bunz, M.; Mücke, H.-G. Klimawandel—Physische und psychische Folgen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt-Gesundh.-Gesundh. 2017, 60, 632–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuo, M. How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Front. Psychol. 2015, 6, 1093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watts, N.; Adger, W.N.; Agnolucci, P.; Blackstock, J.; Byass, P.; Cai, W.; Costello, A. Health and climate change: Policy responses to protect public health. Lancet 2015, 386, 1861–1914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hendryx, M. The public health impacts of surface coal mining. Extr. Ind. Soc. 2015, 2, 820–826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braithwaite, I.; Zhang, S.; Kirkbride, J.B.; Osborn, D.P.; Hayes, J.F. Air pollution (particulate matter) exposure and associations with depression, anxiety, bipolar, psychosis and suicide risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 2019, 127, 126002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hahn, R.A. The nocebo phenomenon: Concept, evidence, and implications for public health. Prev. Med. 1997, 26, 607–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. Mental Health and Climate Change: Policy Brief. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045125 (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- United Nations—Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Do You Know All 17 SDGs? Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- International Labour Organization. Mining (Coal; Other Mining) Sector. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/global/industries-and-sectors/mining/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- London, L.; Kisting, S. The extractive industries: Can we find new solutions to seemingly intractable problems? New Solut. J. Environ. Occup. Health Policy 2016, 25, 421–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parkes, M.W.; Allison, S.; Harder, H.G.; Hoogeveen, D.; Kutzner, D.; Aalhus, M.; Vaillancourt, C. Addressing the Environmental, Community, and Health Impacts of Resource Development: Challenges across Scales, Sectors, and Sites. Challenges 2019, 10, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cernea, M. Development-Induced and Conflict-Induced IDPs: Bridging the Research Divide. Forced Migr. Rev. 2006, 261, 25–27. Available online: https://www.fmreview.org/brookings/cernea (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Terminski, B. Mining-induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue. SSOAR 2012, 41. Available online: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-327774 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Brisbois, B.W.; Reschny, J.; Fyfe, T.M.; Harder, H.G.; Parkes, M.W.; Allison, S.; Buse, C.G.; Fumerton, R.; Oke, B. Mapping research on resource extraction and health: A scoping review. Extr. Ind. Soc. 2019, 6, 250–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goessling, K.P. Mining Induced Displacement and Mental Health: A Call for Action. Int. J. Adv. Couns. 2010, 32, 153–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owen, J.R.; Kemp, D. Mining-induced displacement and resettlement: A critical appraisal. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 87, 478–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xi, J.; Hwang, S.-S.; Drentea, P. Experiencing a forced relocation at different life stages: The effects of China’s three gorges project–induced relocation on depression. Soc. Ment. Health 2013, 3, 59–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandau, F.; Timme, S.; Baumgarten, C.; Wintermeyer, D. Facts and Figures on Lignite and Hard Coal: Status and Prospects 2021. German Environment Agency (UBA) 2021, 28/2021. Available online: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/52/097/52097885.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action. Coal. Available online: https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Energy/coal.html (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Michel, J.H. Status and Impacts of the German Lignite Industry. Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain 2008, Air Pollution and Climate Series 18, 17. Available online: https://www.airclim.org/sites/default/files/documents/APC18SE.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Pao-Yu, O.; Brauers, H.; Herpich, P.; von Hirschhausen, C.; Prahl, A.; Wehnert, T.; Kemfert, C. Die Beendigung der Energetischen Nutzung von Kohle in Deutschland: Ein Überblick über Zusammenhänge, Herausforderungen und Lösungsoptionen; Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung: Berlin, Germany, 2018; Available online: https://epub.wupperinst.org/frontdoor/index/index/docId/7231 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Speldewinde, P.C.; Cook, A.; Davies, P.; Weinstein, P. A relationship between environmental degradation and mental health in rural Western Australia. Health Place 2009, 15, 880–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DEBRIV Bundesverband Braunkohle. Overview and History of the Mining Districts. Available online: https://braunkohle.de/braunkohle-in-deutschland/uebersicht-und-geschichte-der-reviere (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Dickmann, F. Reclamation conditions of opencast mining in the Rhenish Lignite-mining Region (Germany). Z. Fur Geomorphol. 2011, 55, 15–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brock, A.; Dunlap, A. Normalising corporate counterinsurgency: Engineering consent, managing resistance and greening destruction around the Hambach coal mine and beyond. Polit. Geogr. 2018, 62, 33–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willms, A. Moving Villages for Coal: A German Case Study. The State of Environmental Migration 2018 (A Review of 2017). pp. 163–188. Available online: http://labos.ulg.ac.be/hugo/wp-content/uploads/sites/38/2017/11/01-SEM2018_30oct_18h_HD_Final-version_compressed.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Porada, H.; Castro, P. Resettling Villages, Unsettling Lives. Green Eur. J. 2020, 19, 94–101. Available online: https://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/resettling-villages-unsettling-lives (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- RWE. Planning and Implementation of the Resettlement. Available online: https://www.rwe.com/nachbarschaft/rwe-vor-ort/umsiedlung/planung-und-durchfuehrung (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- The Federal Government. Ending Coal-Generated Power. Available online: https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/kohleausstiegsgesetz-1717014 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- MWIDE NRW. Lead Decision 2021: New Perspectives for the Rhenish Lignite Mining Region. Available online: https://www.wirtschaft.nrw/sites/default/files/asset/document/leitentscheidung_2021_0.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- RWE. Framework Data of the Resettlement Sites Keyenberg, Kuckum, Unter-/Oberwestrich and Berverath. Available online: https://www.rwe.com/nachbarschaft/rwe-vor-ort/umsiedlung/rahmendaten-keyenberg (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- RWE. Framework Data of the Resettlement Site Manheim, City of Kerpen. Available online: https://www.rwe.com/nachbarschaft/rwe-vor-ort/umsiedlung/rahmendaten-manheim (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Leiner, D.J. SoSci Survey 2021, Version 3.2.32 [Computer Software]; Available online: https://www.soscisurvey.de (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Higginbotham, N.; Connor, L.; Albrecht, G.; Freeman, S.; Agho, K. Validation of an environmental distress scale. EcoHealth 2006, 3, 245–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Busch, M.A.; Maske, U.E.; Ryl, L.; Schlack, R.; Hapke, U. Prävalenz von depressiver Symptomatik und diagnostizierter Depression bei Erwachsenen in Deutschland. Bundesgesundheitsblatt-Gesundh.-Gesundh. 2013, 56, 733–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kocalevent, R.-D.; Hinz, A.; Brähler, E. Standardization of the depression screener patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) in the general population. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2013, 35, 551–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hinz, A.; Klein, A.M.; Brähler, E.; Glaesmer, H.; Luck, T.; Riedel-Heller, S.G.; Wirkner, K.; Hilbert, A. Psychometric evaluation of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener GAD-7, based on a large German general population sample. J. Affect. Disord. 2017, 210, 338–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hinz, A.; Ernst, J.; Glaesmer, H.; Brähler, E.; Rauscher, F.G.; Petrowski, K.; Kocalevent, R.-D. Frequency of somatic symptoms in the general population: Normative values for the Patient Health Questionnaire-15 (PHQ-15). J. Psychosom. Res. 2017, 96, 27–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.; Löwe, B. The patient health questionnaire somatic, anxiety, and depressive symptom scales: A systematic review. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2010, 32, 345–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- City of Erkelenz. Population Development 2021—Population Status as of 30.06.2021. Available online: https://www.erkelenz.de/tourismus-kultur-sport-freizeit/stadtportrait/bevoelkerungsentwicklung (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- City of Mönchengladbach. Population Structure—Population by City Districts and Neighbourhoods on 31.12.2021. Available online: https://www.moenchengladbach.de/de/rathaus/buergerinfo-a-z/planen-bauen-mobilitaet-umwelt-dezernat-vi/fachbereich-stadtentwicklung-und-planung-61/abteilung-statistik-und-informationsmanagement-handlungsfeld-wohnen/statistik-und-informationsmanagement (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- City of Mönchengladbach. Social Area Analysis 2020, Average Age. Available online: https://www.moenchengladbach.de/fileadmin/user_upload/DEZ_I/I-2/Statistik__1_/Karten/Altersdurchschnitt_2020.pdf (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- Maps, Analyses, and Statistics on the Resident Population—Erkelenz 2019. Available online: https://ugeo.urbistat.com/AdminStat/de/de/demografia/eta/erkelenz/20158558/4 (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- City of Mönchengladbach. District Descriptions—Mönchengladbach 2020. Available online: https://www.moenchengladbach.de/fileadmin/user_upload/DEZ_I/I-2/Statistik__1_/Stadtteilbeschreibungen/Stadtteilbeschreibung_2020_September.pdf (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- Steffen, A.; Thom, J.; Jacobi, F.; Holstiege, J.; Bätzing, J. Trends in prevalence of depression in Germany between 2009 and 2017 based on nationwide ambulatory claims data. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 271, 239–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bretschneider, J.; Janitza, S.; Jacobi, F.; Thom, J.; Hapke, U.; Kurth, T.; Maske, U.E. Time trends in depression prevalence and health-related correlates: Results from population-based surveys in Germany 1997–1999 vs. 2009–2012. BMC Psychiatry 2018, 18, 394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bäuerle, A.; Teufel, M.; Musche, V.; Weismüller, B.; Kohler, H.; Hetkamp, M.; Dörrie, N.; Schweda, A.; Skoda, E.-M. Increased generalized anxiety, depression and distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study in Germany. J. Public Health 2020, 42, 672–678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peters, A.; Rospleszcz, S.; Greiser, K.H.; Dallavalle, M.; Berger, K. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Self-Reported Health: Early Evidence from the German National Cohort. Dtsch. Ärzteblatt Int. 2020, 117, 861–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schelhorn, I.; Ecker, A.; Lüdtke, M.N.; Rehm, S.; Tran, T.; Bereznai, J.L.; Shiban, Y. Psychological Burden During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 640518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- RKI. Daily Situation Report of the Robert Koch Institute on COVID-19, 29.06.2021. p. 4. Available online: https://www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/N/Neuartiges_Coronavirus/Situationsberichte/Jun_2021/2021-06-29-de.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Kocalevent, R.-D.; Hinz, A.; Brähler, E. Standardization of a screening instrument (PHQ-15) for somatization syndromes in the general population. BMC Psychiatry 2013, 13, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tibubos, A.N.; Otten, D.; Zöller, D.; Binder, H.; Wild, P.S.; Fleischer, T.; Beutel, M.E. Bidimensional structure and measurement equivalence of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9: Sex-sensitive assessment of depressive symptoms in three representative German cohort studies. BMC Psychiatry 2021, 21, 238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Casey, J.A.; Wilcox, H.C.; Hirsch, A.G.; Pollak, J.; Schwartz, B.S. Associations of unconventional natural gas development with depression symptoms and disordered sleep in Pennsylvania. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 11375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobi, F.; Höfler, M.; Strehle, J.; Mack, S.; Gerschler, A.; Scholl, L.; Busch, M.A.; Maske, U.; Hapke, U.; Gaebel, W.; et al. Psychische Störungen in der Allgemeinbevölkerung. Der Nervenarzt 2014, 85, 77–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levis, B.; Benedetti, A.; Ioannidis, J.P.; Sun, Y.; Negeri, Z.; He, C.; Wu, Y.; Thombs, B.D. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 scores do not accurately estimate depression prevalence: Individual participant data meta-analysis. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2020, 122, 115–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Boyd, C.P.; Parr, H. Climate change and rural mental health: A social geographic perspective. Rural Remote Health 2020, 20, 6337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parr, H.; Philo, C. Rural mental health and social geographies of caring. Soc. Cult. Geogr. 2003, 4, 471–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirsch, J.K.; Smalley, K.B.; Selby-Nelson, E.M.; Hamel-Lambert, J.M.; Rosmann, M.R.; Barnes, T.A.; Abrahamson, D.; Meit, S.C.; GreyWolf, I.; Beckmann, S.; et al. Psychosocial impact of fracking: A review of the literature on the mental health consequences of hydraulic fracturing. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2018, 16, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mactaggart, F.; McDermott, L.; Tynan, A.; Gericke, C.A. Exploring the determinants of health and wellbeing in communities living in proximity to coal seam gas developments in regional Queensland. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luginaah, I.N.; Taylor, S.M.; Elliott, S.J.; Eyles, J.D. Community reappraisal of the perceived health effects of a petroleum refinery. Soc. Sci. Med. 2002, 55, 47–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elliott, S.J.; McClure, J. “There’s just hope that no one’s health is at risk”: Residents’ reappraisal of a landfill siting. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2009, 52, 237–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kivimäki, M.; Lawlor, D.A.; Singh-Manoux, A.; Batty, G.D.; Ferrie, J.E.; Shipley, M.J.; Jokela, M. Common mental disorder and obesity: Insight from four repeat measures over 19 years: Prospective Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ 2009, 339, b3765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maske, U.E.; Buttery, A.K.; Beesdo-Baum, K.; Riedel-Heller, S.; Hapke, U.; Busch, M.A. Prevalence and correlates of DSM-IV-TR major depressive disorder, self-reported diagnosed depression and current depressive symptoms among adults in Germany. J. Affect. Disord. 2016, 190, 167–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morris, L. Germany Portrays Itself as a Climate Leader. But It’s Still Razing Villages for Coal Mines. Available online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/23/germany-coal-climate-cop26 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Conde, M.; Le Billon, P. Why do some communities resist mining projects while others do not? Extr. Ind. Soc. 2017, 4, 681–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenkins, K.; Rondón, G. ‘Eventually the mine will come’: Women anti-mining activists’ everyday resilience in opposing resource extraction in the Andes. Gend. Dev. 2015, 23, 415–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lubell, M. Environmental activism as collective action. Environ. Behav. 2002, 34, 431–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conner, J.O.; Crawford, E.; Galioto, M. The mental health effects of student activism: Persisting despite psychological costs. J. Adolesc. Res. 2021, 1–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boley, B.B.; Strzelecka, M.; Yeager, E.P.; Ribeiro, M.A.; Aleshinloye, K.D.; Woosnam, K.M.; Mimbs, B.P. Measuring place attachment with the Abbreviated Place Attachment Scale (APAS). J. Environ. Psychol. 2021, 74, 101577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hickman, C.; Marks, E.; Pihkala, P.; Clayton, S.; Lewandowski, R.E.; Mayall, E.E.; Wray, B.; Mellor, C.; van Susteren, L. Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: A global survey. Lancet Planet. Health 2021, 5, e863–e873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Federal Government. Coalition Agreement 2021–2025 between the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Alliance 90/The Greens (BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN) and the Free Democratic Party (FDP). p. 59. Available online: https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/service/gesetzesvorhaben/koalitionsvertrag-2021-1990800 (accessed on 24 January 2022).
- Votruba, N.; Thornicroft, G.; FundaMentalSDG Steering Group. Sustainable development goals and mental health: Learnings from the contribution of the FundaMentalSDG global initiative. Glob. Ment. Health 2016, 3, e26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sterling, E.J.; Pascua, P.; Sigouin, A.; Gazit, N.; Mandle, L.; Betley, E.; McCarter, J. Creating a space for place and multidimensional well-being: Lessons learned from localizing the SDGs. Sustain. Sci. 2020, 15, 1129–1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization Europe. SDG 13: Health and Climate Action. Available online: https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-policy/sustainable-development-goals/publications/2019/policy-briefs-on-health-and-the-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-13-health-and-climate-action (accessed on 3 June 2022).
- Pearce, F. A Major Oil Pipeline Project Strikes Deep at the Heart of Africa. Available online: https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-major-oil-pipeline-project-strikes-deep-at-the-heart-of-africa (accessed on 24 January 2022).
New Villages | Old Villages | Pit Edge Villages | p-Value * | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sociodemographics | ||||
mean (SD) | ||||
age | 55.7 (15.7) | 54.2 (18.1) | 53.9 (15.3) | n.s. # |
n = 173 | n = 104 | n = 301 | ||
n (%) | ||||
female gender | 93 (52.0) | 57 (51.4) | 177 (55.7) | n.s. |
n = 179 | n = 111 | n = 318 | ||
marriage or partnership | 156 (86.7) | 75 (67.6) | 261 (81.1) | <0.001 |
n = 180 | n = 111 | n = 322 | ||
university degree | 32 (18.7) | 26 (25.0) | 69 (22.9) | n.s. |
n = 171 | n = 104 | n = 301 | ||
children living in the village | 85 (48.3) | 53 (46.9) | 130 (40.3) | n.s. |
n = 176 | n = 113 | n = 323 | ||
grandchildren living in the village | 27 (15.3) | 9 (8.0) | 31 (9.6) | n.s. |
n = 176 | n = 113 | n = 323 | ||
former generations living in the region | 106 (62.0) | 81 (73.6) | 188 (60.5) | <0.05 |
n = 171 | n = 110 | n = 311 | ||
living on old family property | 86 (50.0) | 72 (63.7) | 131 (41.7) | <0.001 |
n = 172 | n = 113 | n = 314 | ||
ownership of residence | 158 (89.8) | 98 (89.1) | 267 (84.8) | n.s. |
n = 176 | n = 110 | n = 315 | ||
spend entire life in the village | 72 (40.9) | 56 (50.0) | 117 (37.1) | n.s. |
n = 176 | n = 112 | n = 315 | ||
Solastalgia (score) | ||||
mean (SD) | ||||
n = 170 | n = 111 | n = 312 | ||
solastalgia | 21.19 (7.51) | 25.59 (5.81) | 25.38 (4.97) | <0.001 # |
- male | 20.09 (7.88) | 25.85 (5.73) | 24.35 (5.93) | <0.001 # |
- female | 22.34 (6.94) | 25.90 (5.27) | 26.32 (3.73) | <0.001 # |
Patient Health Questionnaire (score) | ||||
mean (SD) | ||||
somatization | 6.07 (6.71) | 10.28 (7.17) | 10.05 (7.04) | <0.001 # |
- male | 6.01 (6.56) | 8.69 (6.98) | 8.89 (6.86) | <0.05 # |
- female | 6.09 (6.86) | 11.98 (6.84) | 11.16 (7.03) | <0.001 # |
generalized anxiety | 4.60 (5.91) | 8.92 (6.07) | 7.32 (6.64) | <0.001 # |
- male | 4.20 (5.24) | 7.73 (6.23) | 6.22 (5.33) | <0.001 # |
- female | 4.99 (6.50) | 10.19 (5.63) | 8.37 (5.70) | <0.001 # |
depression | 5.02 (6.48) | 7.85 (5.86) | 7.35 (6.03) | <0.001 # |
- male | 4.78 (5.98) | 7.10 (5.88) | 6.50 (6.11) | <0.05 # |
- female | 5.22 (6.96) | 8.70 (5.68) | 8.19 (5.87) | <0.001 # |
Patient Health Questionnaire (dichotomized score > 9) | ||||
n (%) | ||||
somatization > 9 | 47 (28.0) | 58 (52.7) | 145 (46.5) | <0.001 |
n = 168 | n = 110 | n = 312 | ||
- male | 21 (26.3) | 24 (46.2) | 54 (39.7) | <0.05 |
n = 80 | n = 52 | n = 136 | ||
- female | 25 (29.1) | 33 (60.0) | 88 (52.4) | < 0.001 |
n = 86 | n = 55 | n = 168 | ||
generalized anxiety > 9 | 31 (18.6) | 49 (45.4) | 96 (31.2) | <0.001 |
n = 167 | n = 108 | n = 308 | ||
- male | 12 (15.2) | 17 (33.3) | 30 (22.4) | n.s. |
n = 79 | n = 51 | n = 134 | ||
- female | 19 (22.1) | 31 (57.4) | 65 (39.2) | <0.001 |
n = 86 | n = 54 | n = 166 | ||
depression > 9 | 35 (20.8) | 37 (34.3) | 94 (30.3) | <0.05 |
n = 168 | n = 108 | n = 309 | ||
- male | 16 (20.0) | 17 (33.3) | 33 (24.3) | n.s. |
n = 80 | n = 51 | n = 135 | ||
- female | 18 (20.9) | 19 (35.2) | 60 (36.1) | <0.05 |
n = 86 | n = 54 | n = 166 | ||
Patient Health Questionnaire and Solastalgia (correlations) | ||||
r (n) | ||||
somatization and solastalgia | 0.54 (166) | 0.44 (109) | 0.42 (310) | <0.001 |
generalized anxiety and solastalgia | 0.51 (165) | 0.49 (107) | 0.38 (306) | <0.001 |
depression and solastalgia | 0.53 (166) | 0.45 (107) | 0.35 (307) | <0.001 |
New Villages | Old Villages | Pit Edge Villages | |
---|---|---|---|
n (%) * | |||
Place attachment | |||
I feel a deep connection to this place | 68 (39.8%) | 79 (73.8%) | 228 (74.5%) |
n = 171 | n = 107 | n = 306 | |
I feel a sense of responsibility to the people of this place | 40 (23.7%) | 43 (39.8%) | 209 (68.3%) |
n = 169 | n = 108 | n = 306 | |
I feel I have a duty to maintain this place for future generations | 28 (16.5%) | 60 (56.6%) | 242 (79.1%) |
n = 170 | n = 106 | n = 306 | |
Positive feelings | |||
I have understanding for the expansion of the open-pit mine | 45 (26.3%) | 14 (12.5%) | 26 (8.1%) |
n = 171 | n = 112 | n = 320 | |
Economic benefits of open-pit mining are important for the region | 68 (39.5%) | 12 (11.0%) | 38 (11.9%) |
n = 172 | n = 109 | n = 320 | |
Funding of community projects by the mining company is helpful for the region | 86 (50.9%) | 23 (21.1%) | 56 (17.7%) |
n = 169 | n = 109 | n = 317 | |
I am satisfied with efforts of authorities to monitor environmental impacts | 47 (27.5%) | 10 (9.2%) | 24 (7.6%) |
n = 171 | n = 109 | n = 314 | |
Negative feelings | |||
I couldn’t enjoy life as much as I would like to due to the open-pit mine | 51 (29.5%) | 79 (70.5%) | 159 (50.0%) |
n = 173 | n = 112 | n = 318 | |
My community is/was divided by disagreements over the open-pit mine | 101 (58.4%) | 76 (68.5%) | 121 (38.2%) |
n = 173 | n = 111 | n = 317 | |
My family is/was divided by disagreements over the open-pit mine | 17 (9.8%) | 20 (18.4%) | 35 (10.9%) |
n = 173 | n = 109 | n = 320 | |
I am upset at the destruction of historic buildings and landmarks | 105 (61.0%) | 97 (87.4%) | 286 (89.4%) |
n = 173 | n = 111 | n = 320 | |
I am upset at the destruction of natural habitat for plants and animals | 114 (65.9%) | 95 (85.6%) | 293 (91.6%) |
n = 173 | n = 111 | n = 320 | |
I am disturbed that future generations are not given higher priority | 84 (48.6%) | 89 (80.2%) | 267 (83.7%) |
n = 173 | n = 111 | n = 319 | |
I am concerned that my health may be threatened | 65 (38.0%) | 79 (71.8%) | 237 (75.7%) |
n = 171 | n = 110 | n = 313 | |
I feel powerless against changes of my homeland | 102 (60.0%) | 89 (79.5%) | 267 (85.0%) |
n = 170 | n = 112 | n = 314 |
New Villages | Old Villages | p-Value # | |
---|---|---|---|
n (%) * | |||
feeling physically exhausted | 62 (36.3%) | 64 (59.3%) | <0.05 |
n = 171 | n = 108 | ||
feeling psychologically exhausted | 56 (33.0%) | 76 (69.7%) | <0.001 |
n = 170 | n = 109 | ||
feeling well informed/advised by authorities | 55 (32.2%) | 9 (8.3%) | <0.001 |
n = 171 | n = 109 | ||
(expectation of) better general living conditions | 92 (53.8%) | 18 (16.7%) | <0.001 |
n = 171 | n = 108 | ||
(fear of) lost contact with cherished people | 37 (21.6%) | 55 (50.9%) | <0.001 |
n = 171 | n = 108 | ||
(fear of) extra financial burden | 73 (42.7%) | 76 (71.0%) | <0.001 |
n = 171 | n = 107 | ||
(fear of) worse professional situation | 12 (7.0%) | 31 (30.4%) | <0.001 |
n = 170 | n = 102 | ||
my pets can be kept equally well | 58 (73.4%) | 23 (36.5%) | <0.05 |
n = 79 | n = 63 | ||
my livestock can be kept equally well | 4 (28.6%) | 1 (3.3%) | <0.001 |
n = 14 | n = 30 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Krüger, T.; Kraus, T.; Kaifie, A. A Changing Home: A Cross-Sectional Study on Environmental Degradation, Resettlement and Psychological Distress in a Western German Coal-Mining Region. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127143
Krüger T, Kraus T, Kaifie A. A Changing Home: A Cross-Sectional Study on Environmental Degradation, Resettlement and Psychological Distress in a Western German Coal-Mining Region. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127143
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrüger, Theresa, Thomas Kraus, and Andrea Kaifie. 2022. "A Changing Home: A Cross-Sectional Study on Environmental Degradation, Resettlement and Psychological Distress in a Western German Coal-Mining Region" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127143