Next Article in Journal
Caring and Working during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspective of Portuguese Residential Care Facility Workers
Next Article in Special Issue
Firefighters’ Clothing Contamination in Fires of Electric Vehicle Batteries and Photovoltaic Modules—Literature Review and Pilot Tests Results
Previous Article in Journal
Changes in the Circulation of Common Respiratory Pathogens among Hospitalized Patients with Influenza-like Illnesses in the Lazio Region (Italy) during Fall Season of the Past Three Years
Previous Article in Special Issue
Modification of PARP4, XRCC3, and RAD51 Gene Polymorphisms on the Relation between Bisphenol A Exposure and Liver Abnormality
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 19
Issue 10
10.3390/ijerph19105964
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig

by
Liliana Rytel
1,*,
László Könyves
2 and
Slawomir Gonkowski
3
1
Department of Internal Disease with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, ul. Oczapowskiego 14, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
2
Department of Animal Hygiene, Herd Health and Mobile Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
3
Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 5964; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105964
Submission received: 16 March 2022 / Revised: 9 May 2022 / Accepted: 11 May 2022 / Published: 13 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Exposure and Risk Assessment)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic compound utilized in industry for the production of various plastics. BPA penetrates into the environment and adversely affects living organisms. Therefore, the influence of various BPA dosages on the neurochemical characteristics of nerve fibers located in the aortic branch wall was investigated in this study utilizing a double immunofluorescence method. It was found that BPA in concentration of 0.5 mg/kg body weight/day causes a clear increase in the density of nerves within aortic branch walls immunoreactive to cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). Nerves containing galanin (GAL) and/or somatostatin (SOM) did not change when BPA was introduced into the system. Changes noted after administration of BPA at a dose of 0.05 mg/kg body weight/day were less visible and concerned fibers immunoreactive to CART, CGRP, and/or PACAP. The obtained results show that BPA affects the neurochemical coding of nerves in the aortic branch wall. These fluctuations may be the first signs of the influence of this substance on blood vessels and may also be at the root of the disturbances in the cardiovascular system.

1. Introduction

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic substance belonging to the phenols with two hydroxyphenyl groups [1]. It is widely utilized in the plastic industry and is present in various everyday items (e.g., toys, food containers, furniture, epoxy resins, paints, and dental products, etc.) [2]. Items comprising BPA contacting with drinking water and foodstuffs (such as bottles, food packaging, and cans) are particularly dangerous because BPA has the capacity to penetrate from plastics into its surroundings [3,4]. Due to its common use, BPA is present in the following components: tap water, soil, air, and dust [4]. It may penetrate into human and animal organisms through the digestive tract/system, respiratory system, skin, and placenta (in utero) [5,6,7].
BPA is a strong endocrine disruptor. Because of its similarity to estrogen, BPA binds itself to estrogen receptors and causes multidirectional harmful actions in various organs [8,9]. Previous studies have shown that BPA strongly and adversely impacts on the reproductive, nervous, digestive endocrine, and immune systems [10,11,12]. Moreover, it is known that a high degree of exposure to this substance may be correlated with disturbances in the nervous system development, leading to impairment of higher nervous functions and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as with obesity, diabetes, and neoplastic processes [13,14].
The cardiovascular system is also among the systems that are vulnerable to the influence of BPA. In the light of previous investigations, it is known that BPA influences both the heart and blood vessels. In the heart, BPA enhances oxidative stress reactions in cardiomyocytes [15] and changes nervous structures in the heart wall [16]. These processes probably lead to disturbances in the electrical cardiac rhythm and to the appearance of “triggered activities”, which, in turn, cause BPA-induced heart arrhythmia [17,18]. Previous studies have also described that BPA increases the risk of perimyocarditis and fibrosis [19] in the heart. In turn, within the blood vessels, BPA is an important factor causing the intensification of atherosclerosis processes, which is connected with the expression of BPA-induced adhesion molecules, inflammatory processes, and endoplasmic reticulum stress [20,21]. It is known that BPA causes changes in the functions of the endothelium and the muscular layer in the arteries [22]. It should be highlighted that BPA may not only act on the cardiovascular system directly, but can also cause pathological changes in the heart vessels in the organisms exposed to BPA before birth [23].
The harmful impacts of BPA on the heart and vessels have been confirmed by epidemiological observations in the human population. These observations have reported correlations between the exposure to BPA and the risk of coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, heart angina, and blood hypertension [24,25]. In people exposed to higher BPA levels. heart attacks, various diseases of the peripheral vessels, and morphological changes in the arterial wall have been noted more frequently [26].
However, it should be noted that a number of blood vessel issues directly connected to BPA still remain unclear. Among them, the impact of this substance on nervous structures supplying the vessels seems important and should be further studied. On the other hand, due to the fact that the adverse influence of BPA on the neuronal cells is known from previous studies [12,27], BPA-induced changes in the innervation of vessels may be one of the important mechanisms of the abovementioned disturbances in cardiovascular system functions.
Therefore, the aim of this investigation was to observe the influence of different dosages of BPA on the neurochemical characterization of nerves in the aortic wall. Nerve endings, which are widely distributed throughout the body of humans and animals, secrete a number of biologically active substances. Depending on the tissue in which the ends are located, they can act as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and also act as pro- or anti-inflammatory agents. The amount of individual substances in a given tissue may change under the influence of various factors, such as trauma, inflammation, or toxic substances. In response to these factors, a different amount of biologically active substances may be released from the nerve endings, and even substances that are not present in the physiological state may be produced and released. In this study, neurotransmitters that have a proven effect on the cardiovascular system were selected and researched. The fundamental role that CGRP plays in the vascular system is its participation in the cardioprotective mechanism, which is independent of its hypotensive effect. Therefore, it is emphasized that CGRP could protect the vasculature and myocardium against cardiovascular dysfunction [28]. Another described neurotransmitter is nNOS, which is present in the vascular endothelium and importantly contributes to the maintenance of the homeostasis of the cardiovascular system and additionally produces hydrogen peroxide [29]. GAL is described as being able to reduce experimental myocardial injury and to increase cell viability, and, additionally, it inhibits the apoptosis and mitochondrial ROS formation in rat H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells subjected to hypoxia–reoxygenation [30,31]. It is also worth mentioning that VIP and PACAP (both peptides) are involved in the autonomic regulation of the cardiovascular system, where they exert positive inotropic and chronotropic effects and cause coronary vasodilatation. Moreover, PACAP inhibits proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts. Several cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial fibrosis, heart failure, cardiomyopathy, and pulmonary hypertension, have been found to be associated with changes in the myocardial VIP concentration or with alterations to the affinity, density, and physiological responsiveness of VIP/PACAP receptors [32]. The next mentioned substance by the authors is CART, which is known to be involved in the stress response and has been implicated in the regulation of the cardiovascular system. The direct vasoactive properties of CART in the cerebral circulation and its potential mechanisms of action have been described in [33]. The aim of this publication was to show whether/how the amount of the tested substances changes in the aortic wall under the influence of low and high doses of BPA, which would indicate a clear response of the body to BPA exposure.
It is relatively well established that fluctuations in the chemical profile of nervous structures are the first sign of neurotoxic activities not only caused by BPA but also by other toxic substances [28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. The present study was performed on domestic pigs. Due to the fact that pigs are similar to human organisms in terms of the organization and neurochemical characteristics of the nervous system [29,30,31,32,33,34,35], as well as the biochemical and anatomical properties of the cardiovascular system [30,31,32,33,34,35,36], this species seems to be a very good animal model by which to study the impacts of different chemical factors on the heart and blood vessels [31,32,33,34,35,36,37]. Therefore, this experiment can be treated as the first step towards to a greater understanding of the impact that BPA has on the human cardiovascular system.

2. Materials and Methods

This experiment was conducted up on 15 prepubescent female pigs of the Piétrain × Duroc breed bought in the commercial pig fattening farm in the vicinity of Olsztyn (Eden Sp. z.o.o., Gwiżdziny, Poland). The animals were 8 months old at the start of the experiment. During the experiment, the animals were retained in pens appropriate to the age and species of the animal and fed twice a day with commercial complete feed designed for piglets. All the experimental actions were approved by the Ethics Committee in Olsztyn (Poland) responsible for experimental animals (decision numbers 28/2013 of 22 May 2013 and 65/2013/DLZ of 27 November 2013). Before the experiment, the authors performed the following calculations: a power analysis and the significance level, in order to use the smallest number of animals for the research in accordance with the guidelines of the ethical committee so that the obtained results were statistically significant.
The pigs were randomly grouped into three groups of five animals (each group in a separate pen) and subjected to a five-day adaptive period. After this period, the main experimentation commenced. The animals orally received capsules before morning according to the following scheme: (1) control animals received empty capsules; (2) the animals of the bisphenol A I group (BPA I group) received capsules filled with BPA (>99%, catalogue no: 239658-250G, Sigma-Aldrich, Poznan, Poland) at a dosage of 0.05 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)/day; and (3) the animals of the bisphenol A II (BPA II) group received capsules with BPA at a dosage of 0.5 mg/kg b.w./day. The low dose of bisphenol used in the experiment is an acceptable intake dose, while the high dose used in the experiment is ten times this dose (a multiple of this number). The dose was converted per human according to the available dose converters, and these doses were respectively: 0.036 mg/kg and 0.36 mg/kg.
After 28 days, all of the pigs were euthanized. To this aim, the pigs were pre-medicated with Stresnil (Janssen, Beerse, Belgium, 75 μL/kg of b.w., given subcutaneously) and, after about 20 min, treated with an overdose of sodium thiopental (Thiopental, Sandoz, Kundl, Austria, given intravenously).
After euthanasia, the aortic arch was resected from all the pigs. After collection, the samples were fixed in 4% buffered paraformaldehyde (pH 7.4) for 1 h at room temperature (rt), rinsed in phosphate buffer at 5 °C for 3 days, and put into 18% phosphate-buffered sucrose (at 5 °C at least for 3 weeks). Subsequently, fragments of the aortic arches were frozen at −20 °C and cut to sections with a thickness of 10 µm using microtome (HM 525, Microm International, Dreieich, Germany) in cross section. The sections were placed on microscopic slides and retained at −20 °C for further studies.
The neuronal structures in the muscular layer of the aortic arch were studied using double immunofluorescence labeling. Labeling was performed according to the method described previously by Rytel et al. [5]. The method comprised the following stages (performed in rt): (1) drying of the slices (1 h); (2) treatment with solution consisting of 10% normal goat serum, 0.1% bovine serum albumin, 0.01% NaN3, 0.25% Triton x-100, and 0.05% thimerosal in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 1 h; (3) treatment with a combination of two primary antibodies from various species (Table 1): the first was directed against a pan-neuronal marker (protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5)) and the second against one of the other neuronal factors studies, i.e., CART, CGRP, nNOS, PACAP, VIP, GAL, or SOM (overnight); (4) incubation with the combination of secondary antibodies labeled with appropriate fluorochromes (Table 1) to visualize the complex “antigen–primary antibody” (1 h); (5) covering with buffered glycerol. Steps 2–4 were conducted in a humid chamber, and, between the stages of labeling, the tissue fragments were rinsed with PBS (3 times for 10 min). To avoid non-specific labeling, a routine examination of the antibodies’ specificity (including pre-adsorption, omission, and replacement tests) was performed.
The labeled sections of the aortic arches were examined with an Olympus BX51 fluorescence microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) with the appropriate filter sets. For the evaluation of the density of nerves immunoreactive to the neuronal substances studied, at least 500 nerve fibers that were immunopositive to pan-neuronal marker PGP 9.5 (located in at least 15 sections) were tested for the presence of each of the other substances studied. Nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 were considered as 100%. The glasses were signed with consecutive numbers so that the person counting the fibers did not know which substance was counted. The percentage of nerve fibers immunoreactive to particular substances studied was presented as a mean ± standard error of mean (SEM). To avoid a dual calculation of the same nerve fibers, the sections of aortic wall included in the experiment were separated from each other by at least 400 µm (Table 2) because, according to the literature, the distance between the individual nerve fibers is fairly constant and amounts to 15 µm [38].
The statistical analysis was performed using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test with Statistica 12 software (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA), and the differences were considered significant at p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

In this investigation, nerves containing all the neuronal factors studied were found both in the animals of the control group and in the animals treated with both dosages of BPA (Figure 1).
Figure 1 The percentage of nerves containing particular factors in respect of all nerves immunoreactive to pan-neuronal marker PGP 9.5 in control animals (control group), in animals receiving bisphenol A at a dose of 0.05 mg/kg body weight/day (BPA I group), and in animals receiving bisphenol A at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg body weight/day (BPA II group). The bar chart represents means and SEM. Statistically significant data (p ≤ 0.05) are marked by different letters, and insignificant data are marked by identical letters.
The control animals (Figure 2 and Figure 3) had highest number of nerves immunoreactive to CGRP, which was noted in 58.66 ± 1.99% of all the nerves containing PGP 9.5. A slightly lower percentage of nerves showed immunoreactivity to VIP, CART, and/or PACAP. The percentage of such fibers amounted to 48.79 ± 2.34%, 41.30 ± 1.45%, and 37.70 ± 3.07% of all PGP 9.5-positive nerves, respectively (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3). An even smaller number of nerve fibers contained GAL (33.76 ± 2.09%) and/or nNOS (32.68 ± 2.31%). The least abundant were the fibers immunoreactive to SOM, which were found in 25.76 ± 0.96% of all the nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 (Figure 1).
The results showed that both of the BPA dosages used in this study affected the number of nerves containing the majority of substances investigated, and these changes clearly depended on the BPA dose and type of neuronal factor (Figure 1 and Figure 2 and Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4). Generally, fluctuations in the number of nerves containing particular substances were more visible after administration of higher dosages of BPA (Figure 1).
The most visible changes were found in the case of nerves containing CART (Figure 1). The number of such fibers increased to 52.65 ± 2.27% of all the PGP 9.5-positive nerves in the animals receiving a lower dosage of BPA, and to 54.86 ± 2.57% in the pigs receiving a higher dosage of BPA. In comparison to the control animals, these values were higher by about 11 percentage points (pp) (in the animals of the BPA I group) and by about 13 pp (in the animals of the BPA II group). Clearly visible BPA-induced fluctuations in the number of fibers also applied to fibers containing CGRP (Figure 1), PACAP (Figure 1), and/or nNOS (Figure 1). The number of CGRP-positive fibers in the animals receiving lower doses of BPA amounted to 68.07 ± 2.46% of all the PGP 9.5-positive nerves (an increase of about 10 pp compared to the control animals), and, in the pigs receiving higher BPA dosages, this value reached 75.24 ± 1.87% (an increase of about 17 pp in comparison to the control animals). The number of PACAP-like immunoreactive (LI) nerves reached 46.60 ± 3.34% (an increase of about 9 pp) in the pigs of the BPA I group, and 48.97 ± 2.25% (an increase of about 11 pp) in the animas of the BPA II group. The changes observed in the case of nNOS-positive fibers noted under the influence of a lower BPA dose were similar. The number of such fibers in the BPA I group reached 40.99 ± 3.22% of all the nerves immunopositive to PGP 9.5, and there were no statistically significantly differences between this value and the value noted in the control animals. However, the higher BPA dosage resulted in visible changes in the number of nerves immunoreactive to nNOS. In the animals of the BPA II group, nNOS was found in 59.42 ± 2.99% of all the PGP 9.5–LI structures (an increase of about 27 pp in comparison to control animals) (Figure 2).
Less visible fluctuations were observed in the case of fibers immunoreactive to VIP (Figure 1). The number of VIP–LI nerves in the BPA I group reached 53.86 ± 2.13% of all the PGP 9.5-positive nerves and was not statistically or significantly different from the number noted in the control animals. In turn, in the animals of the BPA II group, the number of VIP-LI nerves amounted to 67.66 ± 2.99% (an increase of about 9 pp in comparison to the control group).
During these investigations, the influence of BPA on the number of fibers immunoreactive to SOM (Figure 1) and/or GAL (Figure 1) was not observed (Figure 3). The number of SOM–LI nerves amounted to 24.79 ± 1.89% and 21.97 ± 1.71% of all the PGP 9.5-positive nerves in the animals of the BPA I group and the BPA II group, respectively; the number of GAL-positive nerves amounted to 36.10 ± 2.01% of all the PGP 9.5–LI structures under the impact of lower dosages of BPA, and 36.38 ± 1.71% in the pigs receiving higher dosages of BPA. The number of nerves containing SOM and/or GAL noted after administration of BPA was not significantly statistically different from the values noted in the animals of the control group.
In the present study, BPA-induced changes in the morphological features of nerve fibers were not found. The nerves in the control animals, as well as in those in the animals treated with BPA, were rather thin, but clearly visible.

4. Discussion

The present results indicate that the dosages of BPA used in this study caused fluctuations in the neurochemical coding of nerve fibers in the wall of the aortic arch, and the intensification of these changes depended on the dosages of BPA. The experiment was to show whether the acceptable dose would cause changes in the chemical coding of extrinsic aortic innervation as compared to the control group; whether a high dose had such effects; and, if there were changes, to what extent the amount of biologically active substances changed in relation to the control group. According to the authors, it is particularly important to show possible changes in animals receiving a dose acceptable for consumption.
It should be pointed out that many countries have introduced restrictions on the use of BPA due to its harmfulness to living organisms [39]. Such restrictions mainly concern items intended for children (bottles, pacifiers, and toys) because young organisms are particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of BPA [40,41]. The regulations of the majority of countries have introduced the concept of a tolerable daily intake (TDI) dosage or reference dosage of BPA, which should be safe for living organisms [42]. A lower dosage included in this study is considered to be such a dose in some countries thus far [43], although the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) decreased the TDI from 0.05 mg/kg/day to 4 μg/kg b.w./day because some studies have shown that a dosage of 0.05 mg/kg b.w./day affects the immune system [44]. The results of this experiment have shown that such doses change the neurochemical coding of fibers in the aortic wall to a small extent. On the other hand, the increase in the number of fibers containing CART, CGRP, and/or PACAP under the influence of BPA at a dosage of 0.05 mg/kg b.w./day noted in the present study, as well as in previous observations in which the impact of such a dosage on the nervous structures supplying the internal organs has been found [45], strongly suggest that such a dose of BPA is not completely neutral for use in humans and animals. Therefore, the EFSA decision concerning a decrease in the TDI dosage for BPA was correct. Of course, the dosages of BPA to which living organisms are exposed in everyday life are usually lower than 0.05 mg/kg b.w./day [46], but some situations can foster even higher levels of exposure. For example, previous studies have shown that people with numerous dental fillings of an older type made with materials containing BPA may be exposed to a dose of 30 mg/day [47].
It is known that active substances, the contents of which have apparently changed in the nerve structures, are usually involved in processes arising under the impact of BPA on living organisms [39,40,41,42,43,44,45]. Such fluctuations in the number of nerves containing particular substances may result from changes in the synthesis of active factors in neuronal cells and/or their transport from the perikarya to nerve endings [11]. However, due to the fact that this study is the first investigation on BPA’s impact on the aortic wall, the exact reasons for the changes noted in the number of fibers containing particular neuronal substances are not clear. It is worth mentioning that there are very few reports in the literature describing the number and length of nerve fibers, especially in internal organs. Most reports focus on the presence or absence of specific types of fibers rather than quantifying them. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, one independent study found that the distance between the bundles of nerves in large and small arterial vessels was fairly constant, about 15 µm [38].
In the present study, the most visible changes concerned nerves immunoreactive to CART. The roles of this substance in regulatory reactions within the blood vessel wall still remain unclear, especially outside the brain. It is known that a relatively large number of CART–LI neuronal cells are located in the nucleus of the solitary tract and the postrema area, which are known as potent cardiovascular centers [48]. Moreover, the participation of CART in cerebral vasoconstriction has been described [33]. Other experiments have found that supplying this peptide to the central nervous system results in an increase in arterial blood pressure [49]. Therefore, the increase in the number of CART–LI nerves observed in this investigation may be connected with participation of BPA in processes leading to hypertension, which is known from previous studies [50]. Of course, the BPA-induced increase in the number of nerves containing CART can be connected with other mechanisms. Namely, CART is known as a neuroprotective substance that activates antioxidant pathways [51], preserves of mitochondrial function [50], and modulates the immune system [52]. Thus, the observed changes may be connected with relatively well-known pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic properties of BPA [53], and the increase in the number of CART–LI fibers was the response of the organism to BPA’s influence, aiming at the maintenance of homeostasis. It is all the more likely that the neurotoxic and pro-0inflammatory activities of BPA are mainly based on the activation of oxidative stress reactions and disturbances of mitochondrial functions [54,55], i.e., processes opposite to CART activity.
The next population of nerve fibers, the number of which clearly increased after the treatment with higher dosages of BPA in the present experiment, were fibers containing CGRP. CGRP, similar to CART, is known as a potent protective factor. Previous studies have shown that this substance protects aorta endothelial cells during oxidative injury [56], and also takes part in neuroprotective processes in the central and peripheral nervous systems [57]. It is also known that CGRP takes part in immune reactions and blocks the synthesis of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), an important mediator of inflammatory reactions [58]. Therefore, the changes observed in this study may be connected with the pro-inflammatory actions of BPA. Interestingly, CGRP, contrary to CART, is a potent vasodilator factor. CGRP-induced relaxation has been described not only in the aorta [59], but also in other peripheral blood vessels [60]. The increase in the number of CGRP–LI nerves observed in this study can be connected with the relaxant activity of BPA on the smooth muscles, as is relatively well known from previous investigations [61]. Moreover, changes in the nerves immunoreactive to CGRP may also result from the pro-inflammatory action of BPA [62] because, as is well known, inflammation is accompanied by vasodilation resulting in hyperemia [63]. It may be surprising that the action of BPA caused a simultaneous increase in the number of fibers containing factors causing vasoconstriction (CART) and relaxation (CGRP). The mechanisms of this phenomenon are not clear. However, similar reactions to BPA have been observed in the nervous structures within the gastrointestinal tract and uterus, where administration of BPA resulted in a simultaneous increase in the number of nerves containing substances inducing and inhibiting the muscular activity or pro- and anti-inflammatory factors [10,11]. It should be also noted that CGRP is a key substance taking part in sensory and pain stimuli conduction [64]. However, a connection between the increase in the number of CGRP-LI fibers and this function is unlikely because the BPA dosages used in this investigation were relatively small and did not result in a painful reaction, which was supported by the fact that pigs did not show any clinical signs during investigation.
The next group of fibers, in which the number clearly changed after administration of BPA at a dosage of 0.5 mg/kg b.w./day, included the fibers containing nNOS, which is a marker of nitrergic nerves [5]. Nitric oxide (NO) in the arteries (similar to CGRP) shows relaxant activity, and, therefore, it is considered to be one of the most important vasodilators [65,66]. Thus, the increase in the number of nerves containing nNOS may result from the influence of BPA on the aortic muscles. However, NO is also a factor that affects the nervous system. Interestingly, previous studies have reported both neuroprotective and neurotoxic properties of NO [67]. On the one hand, NO reduces neuronal degeneration by ameliorating inflammatory processes [68] and influences the expression of the vital factors by neuronal cells [69]. However, on the other hand, it is known that pathological and toxic factors lead to excessive synthesis of NO, which induces oxidative stress processes and therefore causes neuronal cell injury [67]. Moreover, NO participates in the regulation of immune system functions. Previous investigations have noted that NO can be both a pro- and anti-inflammatory substance depending on the kind of inflammation and type of inflamed organ, wherein the cardiovascular system’s anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties predominate [70,71]. Thus, the changes in the number of nNOS–LI nerves may result from the pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic properties of BPA and may be connected with the direct influence of BPA on the nervous system (the toxic properties of NO) or reactions leading to homeostasis maintenance (the neuroprotective activity of NO).
In turn, VIP and PACAP, the levels of which also increased in the aortic wall nerve fibers after administration of BPA, are substances with high homology (about 68%) to each other [72]. Thus, their participation in the regulation of blood vessel activity is similar. VIP and PACAP have been described as important vasodilators and vasodepressors in the cardiovascular system [73,74]. Moreover, they play important roles in protective reactions [75] and participate in the modulation of immune processes under the influence of various pathological factors [76]. The abovementioned activities of PACAP and VIP were probably at the heart of the fluctuations in the number of fibers containing these factors observed in this study.
In the present investigation, BPA did not change the number of fibers containing GAL and/or SOM. This strongly suggests that GAL and SOM, although playing various functions in the regulation of blood vessel activity [77], do not participate in processes triggered in the aorta by exposure to BPA.

5. Conclusions

The results show that BPA administered for relatively short period affects the neurochemical coding of nerves in the aortic arch wall. These changes in the innervation are the first signs of the impact of BPA on the aorta and are probably at the heart of BPA-induced disturbances in the cardiovascular system. Due to the fact that this study is the first investigation concerning the impact of BPA on the aortic nerve fibers, the determination of the exact mechanisms causing the observed changes is difficult. Considering the functions of the studied neuronal factors that take part in protective and immunological processes, it can be expected that the changes noted in this study can be connected with the pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic actions of BPA. However, further investigations are essential to confirm such hypothesis.

Author Contributions

L.R. and S.G. conceived and designed the experiments; L.R. organized the experiments; L.R. and L.K. performed the experiments; S.G. analyzed and interpreted the data and wrote the paper; L.R. and L.K. revised the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was financially supported by the Minister of Education and Science under the program entitled “Regional Initiative of Excellence” for the years 2019–2022, Project No. 010/RID/2018/19, amount of funding 12.000.000 PLN.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee in Olsztyn (Poland) responsible for experimental animals (decision numbers 28/2013 of 22 May 2013 and 65/2013/DLZ of 27 November 2013).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Rubin, B.S. Bisphenol A: An endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Bio. 2011, 127, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Balistrieri, A.; Hobohm, L.; Srivastava, T.; Meier, A.; Corriden, R. Alterations in human neutrophil function caused by Bisphenol A. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 2018, 315, C636–C642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Hao, P.P. Determination of Bisphenol A in barreled drinking water by a SPE-LC-MS method. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 2020, 55, 697–703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Michałowicz, J. Bisphenol A—Sources, toxicity and biotransformation. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 37, 738–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Rytel, L.; Gonkowski, S. The influence of Bisphenol A on the nitrergic nervous structures in the domestic porcine uterus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 4543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Reale, E.; Vernez, D.; Hopf, N.B. Skin absorption of Bisphenol A and its alternatives in thermal paper. Ann. Work Expo. Health 2021, 65, 206–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Szymanska, K.; Gonkowski, S. Neurochemical characterization of the enteric neurons within the porcine jejunum in physiological conditions and under the influence of Bisphenol A (BPA). Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2019, 31, e13580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Hafezi, S.A.; Abdel-Rahman, W.M. The endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A (BPA) exerts a wide range of effects in carcinogenesis and response to therapy. Curr. Mol. Pharmacol. 2019, 12, 230–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Monneret, C. What is an endocrine disruptor? Comptes Rendus Biol. 2017, 340, 403–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Rytel, L. The influence of Bisphenol A (BPA) on neuregulin 1-like immunoreactive nerve fibers in the wall of porcine uterus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 2962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Szymanska, K.; Calka, J.; Gonkowski, S. Nitric oxide as an active substance in the enteric neurons of the porcine digestive tract in physiological conditions and under intoxication with Bisphenol A (BPA). Nitric Oxide 2018, 80, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Santoro, A.; Chianese, R.; Troisi, J.; Richards, S.; Nori, S.L.; Fasano, S.; Guida, M.; Plunk, E.; Viggiano, A.; Pierantoni, R.; et al. Neuro-toxic and reproductive effects of BPA. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2019, 17, 1109–1132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Seachrist, D.D.; Bonk, K.W.; Ho, S.M.; Prins, G.S.; Soto, A.M.; Keri, R.A. A review of the carcinogenic potential of Bisphenol A. Reprod. Toxicol. 2016, 59, 167–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Braun, J.M. Early-life exposure to EDCs: Role in childhood obesity and neurodevelopment. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2017, 13, 161–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Gu, J.; Wang, H.; Zhou, L.; Fan, D.; Shi, L.; Ji, G.; Gu, A. Oxidative stress in Bisphenol AF-induced cardiotoxicity in zebrafish and the protective role of N-acetyl N-cysteine. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 731, 139190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Gear, R.; Kendziorski, J.A.; Belcher, S.M. Effects of Bisphenol A on incidence and severity of cardiac lesions in the NCTR-Sprague-Dawley rat: A CLARITY-BPA study. Toxicol. Lett. 2017, 275, 123–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Yan, S.; Chen, Y.; Dong, M.; Song, W.; Belcher, S.M.; Wang, H.S. Bisphenol A and 17β-estradiol promote arrhythmia in the female heart via alteration of calcium handling. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e25455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ma, J.; Hong, K.; Wang, H.S. Progesterone protects against Bisphenol A-induced arrhythmias in female rat cardiac myocytes via rapid signaling. Endocrinology 2017, 158, 778–790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Bruno, K.A.; Mathews, J.E.; Yang, A.L.; Frisancho, J.A.; Scott, A.J.; Greyner, H.D.; Molina, F.A.; Greenaway, M.S.; Cooper, G.M.; Bucek, A.; et al. BPA alters estrogen receptor expression in the heart after viral infection activating cardiac mast cells and t cells leading to perimyocarditis and fibrosis. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne) 2019, 10, 598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Asahi, J.; Kamo, H.; Baba, R.; Doi, Y.; Yamashita, A.; Murakami, D.; Hanada, A.; Hirano, T. Bisphenol A induces endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated apoptosis in mouse non-parenchymal hepatocytes. Life Sci. 2010, 87, 431–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Figueiredo, L.S.; Oliveira, K.M.; Freitas, I.N.; Silva Jr, J.A.; Silva, J.N.; Favero-Santos, B.C.; Bonfleur, M.L.; Carneiro, E.M.; Ribeiro, R.A. Bisphenol-A exposure worsens hepatic steatosis in ovariectomized mice fed on a high-fat diet: Role of endoplasmic reticulum stress and fibrogenic pathways. Life Sci. 2020, 256, 118012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Saura, M.; Marquez, S.; Reventun, P.; Olea-Herrero, N.; Arenas, M.I.; Moreno-Gómez-Toledano, R.; Gómez-Parrizas, M.; Muñóz-Moreno, C.; González-Santander, M.; Zaragoza, C.; et al. Oral administration of Bisphenol A induces high blood pressure through angiotensin II/CaMKII-dependent uncoupling of eNOS. FASEB J. 2014, 28, 4719–4728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Rasdi, Z.; Kamaludin, R.; Rahim, S.A.; Fuad, S.B.S.A.; Othman, M.H.D.; Siran, R.; Mohd Nor, N.S.; Hasani, N.A.H.; Kadir, S.H.S.A. The impacts of intrauterine Bisphenol A exposure on pregnancy and expression of miRNAs related to heart development and diseases in animal model. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 5882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Cai, S.; Rao, X.; Ye, J.; Ling, Y.; Mi, S.; Chen, H.; Fan, C.; Li, Y. Relationship between urinary Bisphenol A levels and cardiovascular diseases in the U.S. adult population, 2003–2014. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2020, 192, 110300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Melzer, D.; Osborne, N.J.; Henley, W.E.; Cipelli, R.; Young, A.; Money, C.; McCormack, P.; Luben, R.; Khaw, K.T.; Wareham, N.J.; et al. Urinary Bisphenol A concentration and risk of future coronary artery disease in apparently healthy men and women. Circulation 2012, 125, 1482–1490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Zhang, Y.F.; Shan, C.; Wang, Y.; Qian, L.L.; Jia, D.D.; Zhang, Y.F.; Hao, X.D.; Xu, H.M. Cardiovascular toxicity and mechanism of Bisphenol A and emerging risk of Bisphenol S. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 723, 137952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Murata, M.; Kang, J.H. Bisphenol A (BPA) and cell signaling pathways. Biotechnol. Adv. 2018, 36, 311–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Argunhan, F.; Brain, S.D. The vascular-dependent and -independent actions of calcitonin gene-related peptide in cardiovascular disease. Front. Physiol. 2022, 13, 833645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Costa, E.D.; Rezende, B.A.; Cortes, S.F.; Lemos, V.S. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase in vascular physiology and diseases. Front. Physiol. 2016, 7, 206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Timotin, A.; Pisarenko, O.; Sidorova, M.; Studneva, I.; Shulzhenko, V.; Palkeeva, M. Myocardial protection from ischemia/reperfusion injury by exogenous galanin fragment. Oncotarget 2017, 8, 21241–21252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Serebryakova, L.; Pal’keeva, M.; Studneva, I.; Molokoedov, A.; Veselova, O.; Ovchinnikov, M. Galanin and its N-terminal fragments reduce acute myocardial infarction in rats. Peptides 2019, 111, 127–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Dvoráková, M.C. Cardioprotective role of the VIP signaling system. Drug News Perspect. 2005, 18, 387–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Iliff, J.J.; Alkayed, N.J.; Gloshani, K.J.; Traystman, R.J.; West, G.A. Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide: A vasoactive role in the cerebral circulation. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2005, 25, 1376–1385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Rytel, L.; Całka, J. Aspirin administration affects neurochemical characterization of substance p-like immunoreactive (sp-li) nodose ganglia neurons supplying the porcine stomach. Biomed. Res. Int. 2020, 2020, 1049179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Conrad, M.S.; Johnson, R.W. The domestic piglet: An important model for investigating the neurodevelopmental consequences of early life insults. Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci. 2015, 3, 245–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Lelovas, P.P.; Kostomitsopoulos, N.G.; Xanthos, T.T. A comparative anatomic and physiologic overview of the porcine heart. J. Am. Assoc. Lab. Anim. Sci. 2014, 53, 432–438. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  37. Cullen, J.M.; Lu, G.; Shannon, A.H.; Su, G.; Sharma, A.; Salmon, M.; Fashandi, A.Z.; Spinosa, M.D.; Montgomery, W.G.; Johnston, W.F.; et al. A novel swine model of abdominal aortic aneurysm. J. Vasc. Surg. 2019, 70, 252–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Fuxe, K.; Sedva, G. The distribution of adrenergic nerve fibres to the blood vessels in skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1965, 64, 75–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Krzastek, S.C.; Farhi, J.; Gray, M.; Smith, R.P. Impact of environmental toxin exposure on male fertility potential. Transl. Androl. Urol. 2020, 9, 2797–2813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Jiang, Y.; Li, J.; Xu, S.; Zhou, Y.; Zhao, H.; Li, Y.; Xiong, C.; Sun, X.; Liu, H.; Liu, W.; et al. Prenatal exposure to Bisphenol A and its alternatives and child neurodevelopment at 2 years. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 388, 121774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Di Paola, D.; Capparucci, F.; Lanteri, G.; Cordaro, M.; Crupi, R.; Siracusa, R.; D'Amico, R.; Fusco, R.; Impellizzeri, D.; Cuzzocrea, S.; et al. Combined toxicity of xenobiotics Bisphenol A and heavy metals on zebrafish embryos (Danio rerio). Toxics 2021, 9, 9–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Krishnan, K.; Gagné, M.; Nong, A.; Aylward, L.L.; Hays, S.M. Biomonitoring equivalents for Bisphenol A (BPA). Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2010, 58, 18–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Hengstler, J.G.; Foth, H.; Gebel, T.; Kramer, P.J.; Lilienblum, W.; Schweinfurth, H.; Völkel, W.; Wollin, K.M.; Gundert-Remy, U. Critical evaluation of key evidence on the human health hazards of exposure to Bisphenol A. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2011, 41, 263–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Santovito, A.; Cannarsa, E.; Schleicherova, D.; Cervella, P. Clastogenic effects of Bisphenol A on human cultured lymphocytes. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2018, 37, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Rytel, L.; Gonkowski, S.; Janowski, T.; Wojtkiewicz, J.; Pomianowski, A. The neurochemical characterization of parasympathetic nerve fibers in the porcine uterine wall under physiological conditions and after exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA). Neurotox. Res. 2019, 35, 867–882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. González, N.; Marquès, M.; Cunha, S.C.; Fernandes, J.O.; Domingo, J.L.; Nadal, M. Biomonitoring of co-exposure to bisphenols by consumers of canned foodstuffs. Environ. Int. 2020, 140, 105760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Fleisch, A.F.; Sheffield, P.E.; Chinn, C.; Edelstein, B.L.; Landrigan, P.J. Bisphenol A and related compounds in dental materials. Pediatrics 2010, 126, 760–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Smedh, U.; Scott, K.A.; Moran, T.H. Fourth ventricular CART peptide induces c-fos in the area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract via a CRF-receptor dependent mechanism. Neurosci. Lett. 2015, 609, 124–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Matsumura, K.; Tsuchihashi, T.; Abe, I. Central human cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide 55-102 increases arterial pressure in conscious rabbits. Hypertension 2001, 38, 1096–1100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Han, C.; Hong, Y.C. Bisphenol A, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases: Epidemiological, laboratory, and clinical trial evidence. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 2016, 18, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Bharne, A.P.; Upadhya, M.A.; Shelkar, G.P.; Singru, P.S.; Subhedar, N.K.; Kokare, D.M. Neuroprotective effect of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide in spinal cord injury in mice. Neuropharmacology 2013, 67, 126–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Mao, P.; Ardeshiri, A.; Jacks, R.; Yang, S.; Hurn, P.D.; Alkayed, N.J. Mitochondrial mechanism of neuroprotection by CART. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2007, 26, 624–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Chang, L.; Chen, Y.; Li, J.; Liu, Z.; Wang, Z.; Chen, J.; Cao, W.; Xu, Y. Cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript modulates peripheral immunity and protects against brain injury in experimental stroke. Brain Behav. Immun. 2011, 25, 260–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Gonkowski, S. Bisphenol A (BPA)-induced changes in the number of serotonin-positive cells in the mucosal layer of porcine small intestine-the preliminary studies. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Meli, R.; Monnolo, A.; Annunziata, C.; Pirozzi, C.; Ferrante, M.C. Oxidative stress and BPA toxicity: An antioxidant approach for male and female reproductive dysfunction. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Guo, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Chen, H.; Jiang, Y.; Gong, P. The protective role of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in high-glucose-induced oxidative injury in rat aorta endothelial cells. Peptides 2019, 121, 170121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Abushik, P.A.; Bart, G.; Korhonen, P.; Leinonen, H.; Giniatullina, R.; Sibarov, D.A.; Levonen, A.L.; Malm, T.; Antonov, S.M.; Giniatullin, R. Pro-nociceptive migraine mediator CGRP provides neuroprotection of sensory, cortical and cerebellar neurons via multi-kinase signaling. Cephalalgia 2017, 37, 1373–1383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Bowen, E.J.; Schmidt, T.W.; Firm, C.S.; Russo, A.F.; Durham, P.L. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulation of calcitonin gene-related peptide expression and secretion from rat trigeminal ganglion neurons. J. Neurochem. 2006, 96, 65–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Wisskirchen, F.M.; Gray, D.W.; Marshall, I. Receptors mediating CGRP-induced relaxation in the rat isolated thoracic aorta and porcine isolated coronary artery differentiated by h(alpha) CGRP(8-37). Br. J. Pharmacol. 1999, 128, 283–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Iwatani, Y.; Kosugi, K.; Isobe-Oku, S.; Atagi, S.; Kitamura, Y.; Kawasaki, H. Endothelium removal augments endothelium-independent vasodilatation in rat mesenteric vascular bed. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 154, 32–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Feiteiro, J.; Mariana, M.; Glória, S.; Cairrao, E. Inhibition of L-type calcium channels by Bisphenol A in rat aorta smooth muscle. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2018, 43, 579–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Lu, X.; Li, M.; Wu, C.; Zhou, C.; Zhang, J.; Zhu, Q.; Shen, T. Bisphenol A promotes macrophage proinflammatory subtype polarization via upregulation of IRF5 expression in vitro. Toxicol. Vitr. 2019, 60, 97–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Gracia-Sancho, J.; Maeso-Díaz, R.; Fernández-Iglesias, A.; Navarro-Zornoza, M.; Bosch, J. New cellular and molecular targets for the treatment of portal hypertension. Hepatol. Int. 2015, 9, 183–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Jimenez-Andrade, J.M.; Mantyh, W.G.; Bloom, A.P.; Freeman, K.T.; Ghilardi, J.R.; Kuskowski, M.A.; Mantyh, P.W. The effect of aging on the density of the sensory nerve fiber innervation of bone and acute skeletal pain. Neurobiol. Aging. 2012, 33, 921–932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  65. Ferrari, A.U.; Radaelli, A.; Mori, T.; Mircoli, L.; Perlini, S.; Meregalli, P.; Fedele, L.; Mancia, G. Nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation and the regulation of arterial blood pressure. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2001, 38, S19–S22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Lee, S.H.; Ok, S.H.; Kang, D.; Kim, H.J.; Ahn, S.H.; Bae, S.I.; Kim, J.Y.; Kim, E.J.; Kim, S.; Hwag, Y.; et al. Nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation induced by minoxidil in isolated rat aorta. Gen. Physiol. Biophys. 2021, 40, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Calabrese, V.; Mancuso, C.; Calvani, M.; Rizzarelli, E.; Butterfield, D.A.; Stella, A.M. Nitric oxide in the central nervous system: Neuroprotection versus neurotoxicity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2007, 8, 766–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Kajimoto, M.; Nuri, M.; Sleasman, J.R.; Charette, K.A.; Nelson, B.R.; Portman, M.A. Inhaled nitric oxide reduces injury and microglia activation in porcine hippocampus after deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 2021, 161, e485–e498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Filpa, V.; Carpanese, E.; Marchet, S.; Pirrone, C.; Conti, A.; Rainero, A.; Moro, E.; Chiaravalli, A.M.; Zucchi, I.; Moriondo, A.; et al. Nitric oxide regulates homeoprotein OTX1 and OTX2 expression in the rat myenteric plexus after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2017, 312, G374–G389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Hocher, B.; Schwarz, A.; Slowinski, T.; Bachmann, S.; Pfeilschifter, J.; Neumayer, H.H.; Bauer, C. In-vitro interation of nitric oxide and endothelin. J. Hypertens. 2004, 22, 111–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Sharma, N.; Al-Omran, A.; Parvathy, S.S. Role of nitric oxide in inflammatory diseases. Inflammopharmacology 2017, 15, 252–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Fahrenkrug, J. VIP and PACAP. Results Probl. Cell Differ. 2010, 50, 221–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Chan, S.L.; Fiscus, R.R. Vasorelaxations induced by calcitonin gene-related peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and acetylcholine in aortic rings of endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase-knockout mice. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2003, 41, 434–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Syed, A.U.; Koide, M.; Braas, K.M.; May, V.; Wellman, G.C. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) potently dilates middle meningeal arteries: Implications for migraine. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2012, 48, 574–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
  75. Szabadfi, K.; Danyadi, B.; Kiss, P.; Tamas, A.; Fabian, E.; Gabriel, R.; Reglodi, D. Protective effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in ischemic retinal degeneration. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2012, 48, 501–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Gomariz, R.P.; Juarranz, Y.; Abad, C.; Arranz, A.; Leceta, J.; Martinez, C. VIP-PACAP system in immunity: New insights for multitarget therapy. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1070, 51–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Long, J.B.; Rigamonti, D.D.; Dosaka, K.; Kraimer, J.M.; Martinez-Arizala, A. Somatostatin causes vasoconstriction, reduces blood flow and increases vascular permeability in the rat central nervous system. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1992, 260, 1425–1432. [Google Scholar]
Ijerph 19 05964 g001
Figure 1. The percentage of nerves containing particular factors in respect of all nerves immunoreactive to pan-neuronal marker PGP 9.5 in control, animals receiving bisphenol A at in low (E1 group) and high dose (E 2 group).
Figure 1. The percentage of nerves containing particular factors in respect of all nerves immunoreactive to pan-neuronal marker PGP 9.5 in control, animals receiving bisphenol A at in low (E1 group) and high dose (E 2 group).
Ijerph 19 05964 g001
Ijerph 19 05964 g002
Figure 2. Nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 (stained green) and nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) (all stained red) in the in the aortic arch walls of the control animals and the pigs treated with low (BPA1) and high (BPA2) doses of bisphenol A. Nerves simultaneously immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 and nNOS, CART, or CGRP (stained yellow) are indicated with arrowheads.
Figure 2. Nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 (stained green) and nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) (all stained red) in the in the aortic arch walls of the control animals and the pigs treated with low (BPA1) and high (BPA2) doses of bisphenol A. Nerves simultaneously immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 and nNOS, CART, or CGRP (stained yellow) are indicated with arrowheads.
Ijerph 19 05964 g002
Ijerph 19 05964 g003
Figure 3. Nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 (stained green) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin (GAL), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), and somatostatin (SOM) (all stained red) in the aortic arch walls of the control animals and the pigs treated with low (BPA1) and high (BPA2) doses of bisphenol A. Nerves simultaneously immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 and nNOS, CART, or CGRP (stained yellow) are indicated with arrowheads.
Figure 3. Nerves immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 (stained green) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin (GAL), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), and somatostatin (SOM) (all stained red) in the aortic arch walls of the control animals and the pigs treated with low (BPA1) and high (BPA2) doses of bisphenol A. Nerves simultaneously immunoreactive to PGP 9.5 and nNOS, CART, or CGRP (stained yellow) are indicated with arrowheads.
Ijerph 19 05964 g003
Table 1. Description of the antibodies.
Table 1. Description of the antibodies.
AntigenSpecies of OriginCodeDilutionSupplier
PRIMARY ANTIBODIES
PGP 9.5Mouseab729111:1000Abcam
GALRabbitAB22331:2000Milipore
nNOSRabbitAB53801:4000Chemicon
VIPRabbitVA 12851:4000Biogene
PACAPRabbitab2166271:4000Abcam
CGRPRabbitAB59201:4000AbDserotec
CARTRabbitHPA0462781:2000Merck
SOMRabbitab1119121:2000Abcam
SECONDARY ANTIBODIES
Alexa Fluor 546Donkey Anti-RabbitA100401:1000Invitrogen
Alexa Fluor 488Donkey Anti-MouseA212021:1000Invitrogen
Table 2. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of the control animals (control group). The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
Table 2. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of the control animals (control group). The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
Control Group
Number of AnimalsPGP 9.5+/
GAL+		PGP 9.5+/
SOM+		PGP 9.5+/
VIP+		PGP 9.5+/
nNOS+		PGP 9.5+/
PACAP+		PGP 9.5+/
CGRP+		PGP 9.5+/
CART+
135.0325.1845.0839.0547.9664.9946.17
237.3827.5652.8236.7330.0854.5840.07
338.5623.0852.1732.1732.9554.4442.96
427.8228.3252.4827.1939.4460.7638.75
529.9924.6841.3828.2438.0558.5138.54
Minimum27.8223.0841.3827.1930.0854.4438.54
Maximum38.5628.3252.8239.0547.9664.9946.17
Mean33.7625.7648.7932.6837.7058.6641.30
SEM2.090.962.342.313.071.991.45
Table 3. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of pigs treated with a low (E1 group) dose of bisphenol A. The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
Table 3. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of pigs treated with a low (E1 group) dose of bisphenol A. The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
E1 Group
Number of AnimalsPGP 9.5+/
GAL+		PGP 9.5+/
SOM+		PGP 9.5+/
VIP+		PGP 9.5+/
nNOS+		PGP 9.5+/
PACAP+		PGP 9.5+/
CGRP+		PGP 9.5+/
CART+
136.9924.2552.9744.7343.4875.2747.81
229.9219.8752.9842.9338.0969.9459.52
341.6321.6760.6329.2451.2567.9451.00
438.3828.5047.4139.2243.1760.0248.59
533.5929.6655.3148.8556.9967.1456.34
Minimum29.9219.8747.4129.2438.0960.0247.81
Maximum41.6329.6660.6348.8556.9975.2759.52
Mean36.1024.7953.86 40.99 46.6068.07 52.65
SEM2.011.892.133.323.342.462.27
Table 4. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of pigs treated with a high (E2) dose of bisphenol A. The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
Table 4. The neurochemical characterization of PGP 9.5-positive fibers in the muscle layer of the aortic arch of pigs treated with a high (E2) dose of bisphenol A. The results are presented as the percentage of fibers showing the activity of specific substances towards PGP 9.5+.
E2 Group
Number of AnimalsPGP 9.5+/
GAL+		PGP 9.5+/
SOM+		PGP 9.5+/
VIP+		PGP 9.5+/
nNOS+		PGP 9.5+/
PACAP+		PGP 9.5+/
CGRP+		PGP 9.5+/
CART+
139.7826.5064.9565.0343.3077.3154.13
229.9122.3277.9358.9756.5178.4762.39
337.9816.1759.5367.2450.7678.9957.48
436.2223.8467.9451.8746.1770.6246.71
538.0221.0467.4654.0148.1070.8053.58
Minimum29.9116.1759.5351.8743.3070.6246.71
Maximum39.7826.5077.9367.2456.5178.9962.39
Mean36.3821.9767.66 59.42 48.97 75.24 54.86
SEM1.711.712.992.992.251.872.57
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rytel, L.; Könyves, L.; Gonkowski, S. Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105964

AMA Style

Rytel L, Könyves L, Gonkowski S. Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(10):5964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105964

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rytel, Liliana, László Könyves, and Slawomir Gonkowski. 2022. "Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 10: 5964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105964

APA Style

Rytel, L., Könyves, L., & Gonkowski, S. (2022). Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105964

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop