Does Environmental Regulation Improve the Green Total Factor Productivity of Chinese Cities? A Threshold Effect Analysis Based on the Economic Development Level
Abstract
:1. Background and Introduction
2. Research Design
2.1. Construction of the Measurement Model
2.2. Variable Selection
2.2.1. Measurement of GTFP
2.2.2. Environmental Regulation Intensity
2.2.3. Other Variables
2.3. Data Sources
3. Empirical Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis
3.2. Threshold Model
3.3. Robustness Testing
3.3.1. The Robustness of Threshold Variables
3.3.2. Hysteresis Test
4. Discussions and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Classification | Name | Interpretation |
---|---|---|
Explained variable | Green total factor productivity (GTFP) | Malmquist–Luenberger exponent calculation based on non-radial -slack-based measure (SBM) directional distance |
Explanatory variables | Industrial SO2 removal rate (SO2) | The intensity of environmental regulation is calculated by entropy weight method through the five single indexes of industrial SO2 removal rate (SO2), smoke and dust removal rate (dust), comprehensive utilization rate of industrial solid waste(solid), domestic sewage treatment rate (sewage) and harmless treatment rate of domestic garbage(garbage) |
Smoke and dust removal rate (DUST) | ||
Comprehensive utilization rate of industrial solid waste (SOLID) | ||
Domestic sewage treatment rate (SEWAGE) | ||
Harmless treatment rate of domestic garbage (GARBAGE) | ||
Strength of environmental regulations (REGU) | ||
Threshold variable | Regional economy (GDP) | GDP per capita |
Control variable | Industrial structure (IS) | Added value of tertiary industry/added value of secondary industry |
Open to the outside world (FDI) | Industrial output value of foreign-invested enterprises/Gross regional product | |
Government Action (GOV) | The ratio of education and technology expenditure to the regional GDP | |
Infrastructure (ROD) | Urban road area per capita | |
Innovation capacity (RD) | Number of patents granted | |
Technology level (TECH) | Power consumption per unit GDP |
Environmental Regulation Category | Model | Threshold | F-Statistic (F) | p-Value (p) | Bootstrap (BS) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
REGU | Single threshold | 12,873 | 125.74 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,873 | 41.89 ** | 0.0167 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,824 | 44.78 | 0.4367 | 300 | |
SO2 | Single threshold | 55,447 | 63.23 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,873 | 50.03 *** | 0.01 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 35,333 | 11 | 0.6833 | 300 | |
DUST | Single threshold | 12,873 | 119.26 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,873 | 35.55 *** | 0.01 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,824 | 29.59 | 0.267 | 300 | |
SOLID | Single threshold | 12,873 | 104.01 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,873 | 51.25 *** | 0. 0067 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,824 | 30.55 | 0.3367 | 300 | |
SEWAGE | Single threshold | 12,873 | 98.65 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,873 | 52.41 *** | 0.0033 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 17,594 | 13.21 | 0.55 | 300 | |
GARBAGE | Single threshold | 11,032 | 113.26 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 11,032 | 41.25 ** | 0.0167 | 300 | |
55,447 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,824 | 28.23 | 0.4567 | 300 |
Variable | GDP is the Threshold | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
REGU | SO2 | DUST | SOLID | SEWAGE | GARBAGE | |
GDP-1 | 0.280 *** | 0.348 *** | 0.016 | 0.105 * | 0.238 *** | 0.206 *** |
(0.100) | (0.096) | (0.074) | (0.059) | (0.091) | (0.074) | |
GDP-2 | −0.025 | 0.002 | −0.166 *** | −0.082 *** | −0.075 * | −0.06 * |
(0.077) | (0.046) | (0.072) | (0.020) | (0.046) | (0.035) | |
GDP-3 | 0.063 | 0.126 *** | −0.105 | −0.001 *** | 0.015 | 0.008 |
(0.077) | (0.046) | (0.074) | (0.000) | (0.047) | (0.038) | |
IS | 0.115 *** | 0.11 ** | 0.114 *** | 0.12 *** | 0.115 *** | 0.117 *** |
(0.042) | (0.044) | (0.041) | (0.041) | (0.041) | (0.042) | |
FDI | −0.061 | −0.068 | −0.054 | −0.066 | −0.051 | −0.058 |
(0.0645) | (0.066) | (0.065) | (0.066) | (0.065) | (0.066) | |
ROD | 0.0011 | 0.0003 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 |
(0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | |
GOV | 0.624 | −0.134 | 0.831 | 0.649 | 0.827 | 0.59 |
(0.821) | (0.873) | (0.845) | (0.811) | (0.834) | (0.783) | |
RD | 0.009515 | 0.005 | 0.0121 | 0.008 | 0.011 | 0.0108641 |
(0.022) | (0.020) | (0.022) | (0.021) | (0.022) | (0.022) | |
TECH | −0.258 ** | −0.232 * | −0.28 *** | −0.278 ** | −0.267 ** | −0.25 ** |
(0.120) | (0.119) | (0.123) | (0.122) | (0.121) | (0.117) | |
Constant | 0.874 *** | 0.89 *** | 1. 007 *** | 0.923 *** | 0.896 *** | 0.906 *** |
(0.063) | (0.051) | (0.08) | (0.053) | (0.055) | (0.057) | |
Numbers | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 |
R-squared | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.13 |
Environmental Regulation | Model | Threshold | F | P | BS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
REGU | Single threshold | 2.670 | 44.95 * | 0.053 | 300 |
Double threshold | 1.845 | 40.55 | 0.137 | 300 | |
2.732 | |||||
SO2 | Single threshold | 6.834 | 61.99 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 2.670 | 28.13 | 0.2333 | 300 | |
6.834 | |||||
DUST | Single threshold | 2.732 | 48.21 ** | 0.02 | 300 |
Double threshold | 1.845 | 40.2 | 0.13 | 300 | |
2.732 | |||||
SOLID | Single threshold | 1.845 | 39.31 * | 0.093 | 300 |
Double threshold | 1.845 | 39.92 * | 0.083 | 300 | |
8.204 | |||||
Three thresholds | 0.428 | 33.94 | 0.383 | 300 | |
SEWAGE | Single threshold | 8.483 | 32.53 | 0.1833 | 300 |
GARBAGE | Single threshold | 2.670 | 37.77 | 0.11 | 300 |
Variable | NL (Nighttime Light) Is the Threshold | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
REGU | SO2 | DUST | SOLID | |
NL-1 | 0.09 | 0.09 * | −0.027 | 0.044 |
(0.077) | (0.05) | (0.070) | (0.055) | |
NL-2 | −0.122 | 0.14 ** | −0.182 ** | 0.110 *** |
(0.074) | (0.059) | (0.077) | (0.038) | |
NL-3 | 0.001 ** | |||
(0.0003) | ||||
IS | 0.14 *** | 0.14 *** | 0.127 ** | 0.121 *** |
(0.037) | (0.036) | (0.036) | (0.036) | |
FDI | 0.039 | −0.019 | 0.041 | 0.016 |
(0.054) | (0.056) | (0.055) | (0.053) | |
ROD | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.002 |
(0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | |
GOV | 0.484 | −1.19 | −0.538 | −0.766 |
(0.936) | (0.808) | (0.886) | (0.84) | |
RD | −0.001 | −0.017 | −0.002 | −0.008 |
(0.018) | (0.015) | (0.017) | (0.015) | |
TECH | −0.27 ** | −0.241 * | −0.291 ** | −0.28 ** |
(0.136) | (0.133) | (0.137) | (0.041) | |
Constant | 0.896 *** | 0.887 *** | 0.994 *** | 0.927 *** |
(0.056) | (0.046) | (0.075) | (0.055) | |
Numbers | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 |
Environmental Regulation | Model | Threshold | F | p | BS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
REGU-1 | Single threshold | 12,140 | 89.61 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 11,158 | 47.13 ** | 0.0167 | 300 | |
19,656 | |||||
Three thresholds | 53,771 | 31.5 | 0.39 | 300 | |
SO2-1 | Single threshold | 12,140 | 51.32 *** | 0.0033 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,140 | 44.48 *** | 0.0067 | 300 | |
55,089 | |||||
Three thresholds | 90,261 | 12 | 0.6533 | 300 | |
DUST-1 | Single threshold | 17,421 | 86.2 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 17,421 | 32.66 ** | 0.0233 | 300 | |
53,771 | |||||
Three thresholds | 11,158 | 26.54 | 0.2367 | 300 | |
SOLID-1 | Single threshold | 16,892 | 80.96 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 16,892 | 30.07 * | 0.0567 | 300 | |
61,177 | |||||
Three thresholds | 11,158 | 18.45 | 0.35 | 300 | |
SEWAGE-1 | Single threshold | 12,140 | 66.11 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,140 | 49.26 ** | 0.0233 | 300 | |
55,089 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,656 | 20.69 | 0.3867 | 300 | |
GARBAGE-1 | Single threshold | 12,140 | 81.4 *** | 0 | 300 |
Double threshold | 12,140 | 33.37 * | 0.06 | 300 | |
53,771 | |||||
Three thresholds | 19,656 | 28.28 | 0.23 | 300 |
Variable | Environmental Regulation Lags One Step Behind | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
REGU-1 | SO2-1 | DUST-1 | SOLID-1 | SWAEGE-1 | GARBAGE-1 | |
GDP-1 | 0.5137 *** | 0.364 *** | 0.05 | 0.140 *** | 0.271 *** | 0.153 ** |
(0.123) | (0.124) | (0.0795) | (0.045) | (0.096) | (0.070) | |
GDP-2 | 0.228 *** | −0.061 | −0.174 ** | −0.005 | −0.043 | −0.074 ** |
(0.072) | (0.070) | (0.078) | (0.005) | (0.045) | (0.034) | |
GDP-3 | 0.068 | 0.102 ** | −0.114 | 0.067 *** | 0.047 | −0.013 |
(0.067) | (0.044) | (0.080) | (0.020) | (0.043) | (0.036) | |
IS | 0.113 ** | 0.115 ** | 0.113 *** | 0.118 *** | 0114 ** | 0.12 *** |
(0.044) | (0.013) | (0.043) | (0.043) | (0.044) | (0.045) | |
FDI | −0.033 | −0.061 | −0.047 | −0.060 | −0.055 | −0.06 |
(0.069) | (0.07) | (0.0696) | (0.070) | (0.071) | (0.07) | |
ROD | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
(0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | |
GOV | 1.396 | 0.341 | 0.922 | 0.711 | 0.676 | 0.790 |
(0.845) | (0.831) | (0.293) | (0.847) | (0.772) | (0.779) | |
RD | 0.022 | 0.009 | 0.0155 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.0131 |
(0.022) | (0.02) | (0.021) | (0.021) | (0.021) | (0.021) | |
TECH | −0.428 *** | −0.301 ** | −0.381 ** | −0.365 ** | −0.286 ** | −0.310 ** |
(0.155) | (0.13) | (0.150) | (0.14) | (0.125) | (0.128) | |
Constant | 0.799 *** | 0.883 *** | 1.01 *** | 0.86 *** | −0.286 ** | 0.911 *** |
(0.062) | (0.054) | (0.085) | (0.052) | (0.125) | (0.057) | |
Numbers | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 | 163 |
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Li, X.; Xu, C.; Cheng, B.; Duan, J.; Li, Y. Does Environmental Regulation Improve the Green Total Factor Productivity of Chinese Cities? A Threshold Effect Analysis Based on the Economic Development Level. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094828
Li X, Xu C, Cheng B, Duan J, Li Y. Does Environmental Regulation Improve the Green Total Factor Productivity of Chinese Cities? A Threshold Effect Analysis Based on the Economic Development Level. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094828
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Xinfei, Chang Xu, Baodong Cheng, Jingyang Duan, and Yueming Li. 2021. "Does Environmental Regulation Improve the Green Total Factor Productivity of Chinese Cities? A Threshold Effect Analysis Based on the Economic Development Level" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094828