Stress and Mental Health among Children/Adolescents, Their Parents, and Young Adults during the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Switzerland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Samples
2.1.1. Young Adult Sample
2.1.2. Samples of Children and Adolescents and Their Parents
2.1.3. Ethical Considerations
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Symptoms of Mental Health Problems
- (1)
- Young adults and parents
- (2)
- Children and adolescents
2.2.2. Internet Use
2.2.3. Perceived Stress
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Perceived Stress Due to COVID-19
3.2. Mental Health Problems
3.3. Internet Use
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Sample 1: Young Adults (n = 1627) | Sample 2: Children/Adolescents (n = 1146) | Sample 3: Parents (n = 1146) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | Weighted % | n (%) | Weighted % | n (%) | ||
Gender | ||||||
Male | 638 (39.2) | 49.8 | 569 (49.7) | 51.4 | 382 (33.3) | |
Female | 983 (60.4) | 49.9 | 577 (50.4) | 48.6 | 764 (66.7) | |
Other | 6 (0.4) | 0.3 | ||||
Age (mean ± SD) | 21.5 ± 1.5 y | 21.5 ± 1.7 y | 14.3 ± 1.5 y | 14.5 ± 1.7 y | 47 ± 4.7 y | |
19 y | 140 (8.6) | 8.7 | 12 y | 203 (17.7) | 16.9 | Age range 32–55 y |
20 y | 363 (22.3) | 23.8 | 13 y | 206 (18.0) | 16.7 | |
21 y | 345 (21.2) | 22.1 | 14 y | 213 (18.6) | 16.7 | |
22 y | 304 (18.7) | 18.2 | 15 y | 224 (19.5) | 16.7 | |
23 y | 297 (18.3) | 16.5 | 16 y | 198 (17.3) | 16.4 | |
24 y | 178 (10.9) | 9.4 | 17 y | 102 (8.9) | 16.7 | |
Nationality | ||||||
Swiss | 1443 (88.7) | 81.4 | 1071 (93.5) | 94.0 | 1038 (90.6) | |
Non-Swiss | 184 (11.3) | 18.6 | 75 (6.5) | 6.0 | 108 (9.4) | |
Education | ||||||
Mandatory and other | 121 (7.4) | 7.3 | 797 (69.6) | 65.1 | 34 (3.0) | |
Vocational school 1–2 y | 506 (31.1) | 32.5 | 140 (12.2) | 15.7 | 492 (42.9) | |
Vocational school 3–4 y | 763 (46.9) | 45.8 | 209 (18.2) | 19.1 | 193 (16.8) | |
College or university | 237 (14.6) | 14.4 | 427 (37.3) | |||
Employment | ||||||
Full time | 457 (28.1) | 28.5 | 510 (44.5) | |||
Part-time/in education | 1029 (63.2) | 62.4 | 463 (40.4) | |||
Unemployed | 52 (3.2) | 3.0 | 17 (1.5) | |||
Other1 | 42 (2.6) | 2.6 | 156 (13.6) |
Young Adults | Children | Parents | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prevalence of Somewhat/Very in % (Prevalence Rank Order within Group) | Females | Males | Girls | Boys | Mothers | Fathers |
1. My family has experienced financial problems | 11.3 (13) | 9.4 (10) | 6.7 (13) | 7.0 (11) | 12.6 (12) | 10.7 (10) |
2. Unable to spend time in person with my friends or family | 55.2 (1) | 43.3 (2) | 39.4 (3) | 33.3 (3) | 38.5 (2) | 21.7 (4) |
3. Unable to participate in social activities and normal routines | 43.2 (4) | 37.5 (3) | 41.0 (2) | 37.9 (1) | 25.5 (7) | 21.5 (6) |
4. Having to change, postpone, or cancel important plans or events | 48.8 (3) | 44.1 (1) | 48.1 (1) | 35.1 (2) | 33.6 (5) | 33.5 (1) |
5. Challenges at home or with others | 21.8 (9) | 13.7 (9) | 12.2 (10) | 7.9 (10) | 13.5 (11) | 8.9 (12) |
6. My family has experienced trouble getting groceries or other needed supplies | 5.7 (14) | 4.6 (14) | 4.4 (14) | 2.6 (14) | 7.3 (14) | 8.4 (13) |
7. Watching or hearing distressing news reports about COVID-19 | 32.9 (7) | 18.9 (7) | 24.6 (6) | 14.5 (8) | 35.6 (3) | 24.6 (3) |
8. Not being sure about myself or someone close to me getting COVID-19 | 34.1 (6) | 22.5 (6) | 23.7 (7) | 17.7 (6) | 30.5 (6) | 21.7 (4) |
9. Myself or someone close to me having symptoms or being diagnosed with COVID-19 | 34.4 (5) | 27.4 (5) | 25.9 (5) | 18.7 (5) | 33.8 (4) | 19.6 (7) |
10. Trouble getting medical care or mental health services | 13.2 (11) | 8.2 (11) | 10.3 (11) | 6.9 (12) | 15.4 (9) | 10.5 (11) |
11. Not being sure about when COVID-19 will end or what will happen in the future | 53.9 (2) | 35.4 (4) | 35.0 (4) | 23.4 (4) | 41.0 (1) | 28.0 (2) |
12. Difficulty completing my school/work responsibilities online | 14.5 (10) | 7.7 (13) | 18.7 (8) | 16.5 (7) | 11.6 (13) | 8.4 (13) |
13. Unable to complete educational or work requirements | 24.1 (8) | 17.8 (8) | 16.9 (9) | 11.8 (9) | 15.1 (10) | 11.4 (9) |
14. Needing to take on greater family and/or work responsibilities | 13.0 (12) | 7.9 (12) | 7.5 (12) | 5.8 (13) | 23.0 (8) | 12.3 (8) |
S-YESMH in 2018 | During the Lockdown | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mental Health Problems | Total (%) [95% CI] | Females (%) [95% CI] | Males (%) [95% CI] | Total (%) [95% CI] | Females (%) [95% CI] | Males (%) [95% CI] |
Depression 1 | 15.4 [13.6, 17.3] | 20.3 [17.6, 23.0] | 10.6 [8.1, 13.2] | 15.6 [13.7,17.6] | 18.6 [15.9,21.2] | 12.7 [9.8,15.6] |
No or minimal | 54.3 [51.7, 56.9] | 46.4 [43.1, 49.6] | 62.3 [58.1, 66.4] | 54.0 [51.3, 56.7] | 46.3 [42.9, 49.7] | 61.6 [57.2, 65.9] |
Mild | 30.0 [27.7, 32.4] | 35.2 [32.1, 38.3] | 24.9 [21.3, 28.4] | 30.4 [27.8, 33.0] | 35.1 [31.8, 38.4] | 25.7 [21.7, 29.8] |
Moderate | 11.0 [9.3, 12.7] | 12.3 [10.1, 14.5] | 9.7 [7.0, 12.3] | 11.0 [9.2, 12.7] | 12.2 [10.0, 14.4] | 9.8 [7.1, 12.5] |
Severe | 4.6 [3.6, 5.7] | 6.1 [4.6, 7.6] | 3.2 [1.8, 4.6] | 4.7 [3.6, 5.7] | 6.4 [4.7, 8.1] | 2.9 [1.6, 4.2] |
Generalized anxiety disorder 1 | 11.4 [9.8, 13.0] | 14.7 [12.4, 17.0] | 8.0 [5.9, 10.2] | 12.2 [10.4, 14.0] | 14.4 [11.9, 17.0] | 9.9 [7.3, 12.5] |
No or minimal | 61.6 [59.1, 64.0] | 54.5 [51.3, 57.8] | 68.6 [64.9, 72.3] | 60.1 [57.5, 62.8] | 53.4 [50.0, 56.7] | 66.9 [62.7, 71.1] |
Mild | 26.5 [24.3, 28.8] | 31.5 [28.4, 34.5] | 21.6 [18.4, 24.9] | 27.7 [25.2, 30.3] | 32.2 [28.9, 35.5] | 23.2 [19.3, 27.2] |
Moderate | 8.4 [7.0, 9.8] | 9.8 [7.9, 11.8] | 6.9 [4.9, 9.0] | 8.6 [7.0, 10.1] | 10.2 [8.0, 12.4] | 7.0 [4.8, 9.1] |
Severe | 3.5 [2.6, 4.4] | 4.2 [2.9, 5.4] | 2.9 [1.5, 4.2] | 3.6 [2.6, 4.6] | 4.3 [2.9, 5.7] | 2.9 [1.4, 4.5] |
ADHD-related symptoms | 8.3 [6.7, 9.8] | 9.1 [7.2, 11.0] | 7.4 [5.1, 9.8] | 8.8 [7.3, 10.3] | 9.7 [7.8, 11.6] | 7.8 [5.6, 10.1] |
Any mental health problems | 23.0 [20.8, 25.2] | 27.4 [24.4, 30.3] | 18.6 [15.4, 21.9] | 21.8 [19.6, 24.1] | 25.2 [22.2, 28.2] | 18.5 [15.1, 21.8] |
Risky alcohol use (at least monthly) | 33.7 [31.3, 36.2] | 33.5 [30.6, 36.4] | 34.0 [30.1, 37.9] | 20.8 [18.3, 23.3] | 18.3 [15.3, 21.3] | 23.1 [19.1, 27.0] |
Risky alcohol use (at least weekly) | 9.8 [8.2, 11.3] | 8.3 [6.6, 10.1] | 11.2 [8.7, 13.7] | 7.6 [5.9, 9.2] | 6.0 [4.1, 8.0] | 9.0 [6.3, 11.7] |
Mental Health Status | Total (%) [95% CI] | Girls [95% CI] | Boys [95% CI] |
---|---|---|---|
Depression | 7.1 [5.5,9.1] | 9.7 [7.3,12.8] | 4.6 [2.8,7.5] |
1. Feeling down, depressed, irritable, or hopeless (PHQ-2) | 2.0 [1.3,3.2] | 3.3 [2.0,5.4] | 0.8 [0.3,2.4] |
2. Little interest or pleasure in doing things (PHQ-2) | 1.5 [0.9,2.5] | 1.5 [0.7,3.1] | 1.5 [0.7,3.0] |
3. Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping too much (sleep problem) | 4.6 [3.4,6.2] | 6.0 [4.2,8.5] | 3.3 [2.0,5.5] |
Anxiety 1 | 13.1 [11.0,15.5] | 13.6 [10.8,17.1] | 12.5 [9.8,16.0] |
1. Worry about things | 16.4 [14.2,19.0] | 21.3 [17.8,25.4] | 11.8 [9.2,15.1] |
2. Feel afraid | 5.9 [4.5,7.7] | 9.0 [6.6,12.2] | 3.0 [1.8,4.8] |
3. Worry about being away from my parents | 7.6 [6.1,9.5] | 9.0 [6.8,12.0] | 6.3 [4.4,8.9] |
4. Feel scared if I have to sleep on my own | 3.2 [2.3,4.6] | 4.2 [2.6,6.7] | 2.4 [1.4,4.0] |
5. Have trouble going to school in the mornings because I feel nervous or afraid | 4.7 [3.4,6.4] | 5.3 [3.7,7.5] | 4.0 [2.3,6.9] |
6. Suddenly start to tremble or shake when there is no reason for this | 4.3 [3.2,5.8] | 6.2 [4.3,8.9] | 2.5 [1.4,4.3] |
7. Worry that I will suddenly get a scared feeling when there is nothing to be afraid of | 4.5 [3.3,6.0] | 6.8 [4.8,9.6] | 2.2 [1.2,4.2] |
8. Feel scared if I had to stay away from home overnight | 4.0 [2.8,5.7] | 4.1 [2.7,6.3] | 3.9 [2.3,6.7] |
ADHD-related symptoms | 23.0 [20.4,25.9] | 22.7 [19.0,26.9] | 23.3 [19.7,27.3] |
1. Difficult to sustain attention on tasks (e.g., homework) or play activities (e.g., a board game) | 9.1 [7.5,11.1] | 8.5 [6.3,11.4] | 9.8 [7.5,12.7] |
2. Being easily distracted during tasks that require attention | 13.7 [11.7,16.0] | 13.4 [10.6,16.9] | 14.0 [11.2,17.2] |
3. Difficult to stay seated when you are expected to | 6.6 [5.3,8.3] | 6.0 [4.2,8.5] | 7.2 [5.3,9.6] |
4. Act impulsively without thinking about consequences | 8.1 [6.4,10.2] | 8.9 [6.5,12.0] | 7.4 [5.2,10.5] |
ODD-related symptoms | 14.6 [12.5,17.1] | 18.2 [15.0,22.1] | 11.2 [8.6,14.5] |
1. Easily get upset and lose your temper | 9.4 [7.7,11.4] | 12.3 [9.6,15.7] | 6.6 [4.8,9.1] |
2. Often argue and talk back with your parents or teachers | 6.3 [4.9,8.2] | 7.7 [5.6,10.5] | 5.1 [3.3,7.7] |
3. Defy or disobey rules at home, school, or other places | 4.8 [3.6,6.4] | 5.1 [3.3,7.9] | 4.5 [3.0,6.7] |
Any mental health problems | 35.2 [32.1,38.4] | 39.1 [34.7,43.7] | 31.5 [27.3,36.0] |
Mental Health Problems (% [95% CI]) | Total | Mothers | Fathers |
---|---|---|---|
Depression 1 | 7.6 [6.2,9.3] | 8.1 [6.4,10.3] | 6.5 [4.5,9.5] |
No or minimal | 74.4 [71.8,76.9] | 71.7 [68.4,74.8] | 79.8 [75.5,83.6] |
Light | 18.0 [15.6,20.3] | 20.2 [17.5,23.2] | 13.6 [10.5,17.4] |
Moderate | 5.0 [3.9,6.4] | 5.6 [4.2,7.5] | 3.7 [2.2,6.1] |
Severe | 2.6 [1.8,3.7] | 2.5 [1.6,3.9] | 2.9 [1.6,5.1] |
Generalized anxiety disorder 1 | 6.6 [5.3,8.2] | 6.5 [5.0,8.5] | 6.8 [4.7,9.8] |
No or minimal | 73.6 [70.9,76.0] | 70.4 [67.1,73.6] | 79.8 [75.5,83.6] |
Light | 19.8 [17.6,22.2] | 23.0 [20.2,26.2] | 13.4 [10.3,17.1] |
Moderate | 4.5 [3.4,5.8] | 4.6 [3.3,6.3] | 4.2 [2.6,6.7] |
Severe | 2.2 [1.5,3.2] | 2.0 [1.2,3.2] | 2.6 [1.4,4.8] |
ADHD-related symptoms | 5.8 [4.6,7.4] | 6.2 [4.7,8.1] | 5.2 [3.4,8.0] |
Any mental health problems | 13.4 [11.6,15.5] | 14.5 [12.2,17.2] | 11.3 [8.5,14.8] |
Children/Adolescents | Young Adults | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Girls | Boys | Total [IQR] | Females | Males | |
Average minutes per day median [IQR] | 240 [120,339] | 180 [120,300] | 240 [120,360] | 240 [120,301] | 210 [120,300] | 240 [147,360] |
Average minutes per day % [95% CI] | ||||||
0–120 min | 29.0 [26.0,32.1] | 32.2 [28.1,36.5] | 26.0 [21.8,30.6] | 25.8 [23.5, 28.2] | 27.7 [24.6, 30.9] | 24.0 [20.4, 27.5] |
120–240 min | 32.7 [29.7,35.8] | 32.4 [28.2,36.9] | 32.9 [28.7,37.5] | 35.4 [32.8, 38.0] | 36.8 [33.6, 40.0] | 34.0 [30.0, 38.1] |
241–480 min | 30.7 [27.8,33.9] | 27.2 [23.4,31.5] | 34.0 [29.7,38.6] | 30.3 [27.6, 32.9] | 29.4 [26.3, 32.5] | 31.2 [26.9, 35.5] |
>481 min | 7.9 [6.0,9.5] | 8.2 [5.9,11.2] | 7.1 [5.0,9.8] | 8.4 [6.8, 10.0] | 6.1 [4.4, 7.8] | 10.8 [8.0, 13.5] |
Problem internet use % [95% CI] | 30.1 [27.2,33.2] | 28.7 [24.7,33.0] | 31.5 [27.3,36.0] | 21.3 [18.9, 23.7] | 22.6 [19.7, 25.4] | 20.0 [16.1, 23.9] |
1. Difficult to stop using the internet (loss of control) | 25.5 [22.8,28.4] | 24.4 [20.8,28.5] | 26.5 [22.6,30.8] | 24.3 [21.8, 26.8] | 27.3 [24.3, 30.3] | 21.3 [17.3, 25.2] |
2. Prefer to use the internet instead of spending time with others (preoccupation) | 18.4 [16.0,21.0] | 18.7 [15.3,22.6] | 18.1 [15.0,21.8] | 8.8 [7.3, 10.3] | 8.8 [6.8, 10.8] | 8.8 [6.6, 11.0] |
3. Shortage of sleep because of the internet (loss of control) | 7.0 [5.5,8.9] | 7.5 [5.4,10.4] | 6.5 [4.6,9.2] | 9.5 [7.6, 11.5] | 8.6 [6.7, 10.5] | 10.5 [7.1, 14.0] |
4. Look forward to your next internet session (preoccupation) | 22.5 [19.9,25.4] | 15.7 [12.7,19.3] | 29.0 [24.9,33.4] | 8.5 [7.0, 10.0] | 7.8 [6.0, 9.6] | 9.2 [6.9, 11.5] |
5. Unsuccessfully tried to spend less time on the internet (loss of control) | 7.7 [6.1,9.6] | 9.8 [7.3,13.0] | 5.7 [4.0,8.0] | 8.2 [6.8, 9.7] | 9.0 [7.2, 10.8] | 7.5 [5.3, 9.7] |
6. Neglect your daily obligations because you prefer to go on the internet (conflict) | 7.2 [5.7,9.0] | 6.6 [4.6,9.3] | 7.8 [5.7,10.5] | 6.0 [4.3, 7.8] | 4.7 [3.3, 6.0] | 7.4 [4.2, 10.5] |
7. Go on the internet when you are feeling down (coping) | 13.8 [11.7,16.2] | 18.6 [15.3,22.5] | 9.2 [6.8,12.2] | 21.2 [18.7, 23.6] | 22.8 [19.8, 25.7] | 19.6 [15.6, 23.5] |
8. Feel restless, frustrated, or irritated when you cannot use the internet (withdrawal symptoms) | 10.4 [8.6,12.5] | 10.5 [8.0,13.6] | 10.3 [7.9,13.3] | 4.3 [3.1, 5.5] | 4.4 [2.8, 5.9] | 4.2 [2.6, 5.9] |
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Mohler-Kuo, M.; Dzemaili, S.; Foster, S.; Werlen, L.; Walitza, S. Stress and Mental Health among Children/Adolescents, Their Parents, and Young Adults during the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Switzerland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094668
Mohler-Kuo M, Dzemaili S, Foster S, Werlen L, Walitza S. Stress and Mental Health among Children/Adolescents, Their Parents, and Young Adults during the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Switzerland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094668
Chicago/Turabian StyleMohler-Kuo, Meichun, Shota Dzemaili, Simon Foster, Laura Werlen, and Susanne Walitza. 2021. "Stress and Mental Health among Children/Adolescents, Their Parents, and Young Adults during the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Switzerland" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094668