Second-Hand Smoke and Its Synergistic Effect with a Body-Mass Index of >24.9 kg/m2 Increase the Risk of Gout Arthritis in Indonesia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Data Collection
2.3.1. Physical Examination and Blood Biochemistry Analysis
2.3.2. Questionnaire
2.4. Ethical Considerations
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics and Determination of Risk Factors for Gout
3.2. Association between Smoking Status and Gout Disease
3.3. Synergistic Effects of BMI and Smoking Status on the Risk of Gout
3.4. Association between Smoking Status and Hyperuricemia
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Healthy Control Group n (%) | Gout Group n (%) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | <0.05 | ||
Female | 212 (69.70%) | 47 (58%) | |
Male | 92 (30.30%) | 34 (42%) | |
Marital status | |||
Unmarried | 70 (23%) | 15 (18.50%) | 0.38 |
Married | 234 (77%) | 66 (81.50%) | |
Educational level | |||
College | 61 (20%) | 13 (16%) | <0.05 |
Senior high school | 144 (47.40%) | 27 (33.30%) | |
Junior high school or below | 99 (32.60%) | 41 (50.70%) | |
Monthly income | |||
>US$214 | 40 (13.10%) | 12 (14.80%) | 0.68 |
US$128~214 | 68 (22.40%) | 21 (25.90%) | |
<US$128 | 196 (64.50%) | 48 (59.30%) | |
Occupational status | 0.35 | ||
Employed | 151 (49.70%) | 45 (55.60%) | |
Unemployed | 153 (50.30%) | 36 (44.40%) | |
Age (years) | <0.05 | ||
≤47 | 164 (53.90%) | 34 (42%) | |
>47 | 140 (46.10%) | 47 (58%) | |
Uric acid level (mg/dL) | <0.01 | ||
≤5.7 | 195 (64.10%) | 2 (2.50%) | |
>5.7 | 109 (35.90%) | 79 (97.50%) | |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | |||
≤131 | 162 (53.30%) | 31 (38.30%) | <0.05 |
>131 | 142 (46.70%) | 50 (61.70%) | |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | |||
≤80 | 152 (50%) | 44 (54.30%) | 0.48 |
>80 | 152 (50%) | 37 (45.70%) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.05 | ||
≤24.9 | 151 (49.70%) | 22 (27.20%) | |
>24.9 | 153 (50.30%) | 59 (72.80%) | |
Alcohol Consumption | 0.001 | ||
Non-drinker | 253 (65.70%) | 52 (13.50%) | |
Drinker | 51 (13.20%) | 29 (7.50%) |
Characteristics | Healthy Control Group n (%) | Gout Group n (%) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Smoking status | 304 (100%) | 81 (100%) | |
Non-smoker | 212 (69.70%) | 22 (27.20%) | <0.01 |
Exposed to SHS | 47 (15.50%) | 35 (43.20%) | |
Active smoker | 45 (14.80%) | 24 (29.60%) | |
No. of cigarettes consumed per day by an active smoker (pcs) | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | <0.01 |
>0~≤16 | 25 (9.70%) | 13 (28.30%) | |
>16 | 20 (7.80%) | 11 (23.90%) | |
Duration active smoker (years) | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | |
>0~≤23 | 24 (9.30%) | 11 (23.90%) | <0.01 |
>23 | 21 (8.20%) | 13 (28.30%) | |
Pack-year of active smoker | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | |
>0~<20 | 28 (10.90%) | 10 (21.70%) | <0.01 |
>20 | 17 (6.60%) | 14 (30.50%) | |
No. of cigarettes per day generating SHS exposure (pcs) | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (81.8%) | 22 (38.6%) | <0.01 |
>0~≤20 | 38 (14.7%) | 24 (42.1%) | |
>20 | 9 (3.5%) | 11 (19.3%) | |
Duration of exposure to SHS (years) | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (81.8%) | 22 (38.6%) | |
>0~≤31.50 | 30 (11.6%) | 11 (19.3%) | <0.01 |
>31.50 | 17 (6.6%) | 24 (42.1%) | |
Pack-year of SHS exposure | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | |
0 | 212 (81.90%) | 22 (38.60%) | |
>0~≤26.5 | 31 (12.00%) | 10 (17.5%) | <0.01 |
>26.5 | 16 (6.10%) | 25 (43.9%) |
Characteristic | Healthy Control Group n (%) | Gout Group n (%) | OR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking status | 304 (100%) | 81 (100%) | ||
Non-smoker | 212 (69.70%) | 22 (27.20%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Exposed to SHS | 47 (15.50%) | 35 (43.20%) | 7.17 (3.86~13.33) ** | 4.67 (2.18~10.00) ** |
Active smoker | 45 (14.80%) | 24 (29.60%) | 5.13 (2.65~9.96) ** | 3.26 (1.07~9.90) * |
Duration as active smoker (years) | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~≤23 | 24 (9.30%) | 11 (23.90%) | 2.93 (1.13~7.60) * | 2.34 (0.46~11.98) |
>23 | 21 (8.20%) | 13 (28.30%) | 7.45 (3.45~16.08) ** | 5.95 (1.41~25.03) * |
No. of cigarettes consumed per day by an active smoker | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~≤16 | 25 (9.70%) | 13 (28.30%) | 2.83 (0.95~8.42) | 2.50 (0.45~13.96) |
>16 | 20 (7.80%) | 11 (23.90%) | 6.54 (3.15~13.56) ** | 5.15 (1.28~20.63) * |
Pack~year of active smoker | 257 (100%) | 46 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (82.50%) | 22 (47.80%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~<20 | 28 (10.90%) | 10 (21.70%) | 3.44 (1.47~8.01) ** | 2.94 (0.68~12.76) |
>20 | 17 (6.60%) | 14 (30.50%) | 7.93 (3.45~18.24) ** | 7.18 (1.53~33.67) * |
Duration of exposure to SHS (years) | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (81.80%) | 22 (38.60%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~≤31.5 | 30 (11.60%) | 11 (19.30%) | 3.53 (1.55~8.01) ** | 2.11 (0.79~5.66) |
>31.5 | 17 (6.60%) | 24 (42.10%) | 13.60 (6.35~29.11) ** | 10.12 (3.51~29.14) ** |
No. of cigarettes per day generating SHS exposure | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (81.08%) | 22 (38.60%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~≤20 | 38 (14.70%) | 24 (42.10%) | 6.08 (3.10~11.95) ** | 4.53 (1.89~10.84) ** |
>20 | 9 (3.50%) | 11 (19.30%) | 11.77 (4.40~31.51) ** | 4.37 (1.33~14.28) ** |
Pack-year of SHS exposure | 259 (100%) | 57 (100%) | ||
0 | 212 (81.90%) | 22 (38.60%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
>0~≤26.5 | 31 (12.00%) | 10 (17.5%) | 3.10 (1.34~7.18) ** | 1.66 (0.58~4.72) |
>26.5 | 16 (6.10%) | 25 (43.9%) | 15.06 (7.00~32.38) | 9.95 (3.64~27.22) ** |
Characteristics | Healthy Control Group (n = 304) (%) | Gout Group (n = 81) (%) | OR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
BMI ≤24.9 kg/m2 and non-smoker | 106 (34.90%) | 6 (7.40%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
BMI ≤24.9 kg/m2 and smoker (active smoker and exposed to SHS) | 45 (14.80%) | 16 (19.80%) | 6.28 (2.31~17.09) ** | 3.18 (1.01~9.97) * |
BMI >24.9 kg/m2 and non-smoker | 106 (34.90%) | 16 (19.80%) | 2.67 (1.01~7.08) * | 1.94 (0.66~5.64) |
BMI >24.9 kg/m2 and smoker (active smoker and exposed to SHS) | 47 (15.40%) | 43 (53.10%) | 16.16 (6.43~40.58) ** | 9.65 (3.25~28.65) ** |
Characteristic | Norm Uricemia (<6 mg/dL) n (%) | Hyperuricemia (>6 mg/dL) n (%) | OR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking status | 227 (100%) | 154 (100%) | ||
Non-smoker | 163 (71.8%) | 69 (44.8%) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Exposed to SHS | 32 (14.1%) | 49 (31.8%) | 3.58 (2.12~6.05) ** | 3.37 (1.93~5.89) ** |
Active smoker | 32 (14.1%) | 36 (23.4%) | 2.65 (1.53~4.59) ** | 1.39 (0.63~3.07) |
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Kurniasari, M.D.; Karwur, F.F.; Rayanti, R.E.; Dharmana, E.; Rias, Y.A.; Chou, K.R.; Tsai, H.-T. Second-Hand Smoke and Its Synergistic Effect with a Body-Mass Index of >24.9 kg/m2 Increase the Risk of Gout Arthritis in Indonesia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084324
Kurniasari MD, Karwur FF, Rayanti RE, Dharmana E, Rias YA, Chou KR, Tsai H-T. Second-Hand Smoke and Its Synergistic Effect with a Body-Mass Index of >24.9 kg/m2 Increase the Risk of Gout Arthritis in Indonesia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084324
Chicago/Turabian StyleKurniasari, Maria Dyah, Ferry Fredy Karwur, Rosiana Eva Rayanti, Edi Dharmana, Yohanes Andy Rias, Kuei Ru Chou, and Hsiu-Ting Tsai. 2021. "Second-Hand Smoke and Its Synergistic Effect with a Body-Mass Index of >24.9 kg/m2 Increase the Risk of Gout Arthritis in Indonesia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084324