Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Sampling and Data Collection
2.3. Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables Title | Boys (n = 5554) | Girls (n = 5211) | p-Value a |
---|---|---|---|
Mean age (SD) | 6.7 (2.8) | 6.6 (2.8) | |
Age groups | 0.341 | ||
3–5 years | 40.5% | 41.8% | |
6–8 years | 31.0% | 30.8% | |
9–12 years | 28.4% | 27.4% | |
Household’s financial situation | <0.001 | ||
Very difficult to make ends meet | 3.1% | 2.2% | |
Relatively difficult | 25.2% | 27.8% | |
Relatively easy | 63.6% | 61.2% | |
Very easy | 8.1% | 8.8% | |
Parents’ level of education | 0.084 | ||
Primary studies | 4.5% | 3.7% | |
Secondary studies | 51.0% | 51.9% | |
University studies | 44.5% | 44.4% | |
Lack of outdoor space | 26.0% | 26.2% | 0.771 |
Presence of dampness | 12.2% | 11.6% | 0.323 |
Lack of natural light | 8.9% | 8.7% | 0.660 |
Noise | 4.0% | 4.5% | 0.222 |
Exposure to tobacco smoke | 31.3% | 30.6% | 0.402 |
Lack of physical activity | 21.8% | 18.4% | <0.001 |
Insufficient fruit intake | 20.1% | 17.6% | <0.001 |
Insufficient vegetable intake | 41.6% | 41.9% | 0.762 |
Excessive consumption of processed or ultraprocessed foods | 31.4% | 29.0% | 0.009 |
Screen exposure ≥ 6 h | 25.3% | 24.1% | 0.136 |
Low level of contact with family and friends | 44.5% | 38.7% | <0.001 |
Type of Health Determinant | Variables | Very Difficult to Make Ends Meet | Relatively Difficult | Relatively Easy | Very Easy | p-Value a | Primary Studies | Secondary Studies | University Studies | p-Value a |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys | ||||||||||
Housing conditions | Lack of outdoor spaces | 32.4% | 31.6% | 24.0% | 21.3% | <0.001 | 29.1% | 27.0% | 24.5% | 0.053 |
Presence of dampness | 22.5% | 18.1% | 9.9% | 7.8% | <0.001 | 22.7% | 12.9% | 10.5% | <0.001 | |
Lack of natural light | 22.4% | 12.0% | 7.7% | 4.2% | <0.001 | 13.9% | 9.6% | 7.6% | <0.001 | |
Noise | 11.8% | 8.2% | 2.0% | 2.9% | <0.001 | 11.6% | 4.6% | 2.6% | <0.001 | |
Exposure to tobacco smoke | 48.2% | 43.3% | 26.9% | 21.8% | <0.001 | 51.4% | 37.5% | 22.2% | <0.001 | |
Health-related behaviors | Lack of physical activity | 35.3% | 29.0% | 19.5% | 13.3% | <0.001 | 35.1% | 24.1% | 17.9% | <0.001 |
Insufficient fruit intake | 25.4% | 27.5% | 18.0% | 10.9% | <0.001 | 39.8% | 24.2% | 13.3% | <0.001 | |
Insufficient vegetable intake | 44.7% | 48.6% | 40.0% | 31.9% | <0.001 | 65.7% | 47.8% | 32.1% | <0.001 | |
Excessive consumption of processed or ultraprocessed foods | 38.2% | 32.2% | 30.8% | 29.9% | 0.160 | 27.5% | 32.5% | 30.4% | 0.095 | |
Screen exposure ≥ 6 h | 41.2% | 29.4% | 23.3% | 22.5% | <0.001 | 35.3% | 30.3% | 18.6% | <0.001 | |
Low level of contact with family and friends | 55.3% | 51.4% | 41.8% | 38.6% | <0.001 | 46.2% | 46.7% | 41.7% | 0.001 | |
Girls | ||||||||||
Housing conditions | Lack of outdoor spaces | 24.8% | 31.4% | 24.5% | 23.5% | <0.001 | 22.4% | 27.7% | 24.9% | 0.038 |
Presence of dampness | 18.4% | 19.0% | 9.0% | 5.0% | <0.001 | 15.1% | 13.6% | 9.0% | <0.001 | |
Lack of natural light | 20.4% | 12.6% | 7.5% | 1.8% | <0.001 | 10.4% | 9.6% | 7.4% | 0.016 | |
Noise | 11.5% | 8.3% | 2.9% | 1.8% | <0.001 | 8.3% | 5.6% | 2.9% | <0.001 | |
Exposure to tobacco smoke | 35.1% | 42.7% | 26.2% | 20.0% | <0.001 | 41.7% | 36.9% | 22.3% | <0.001 | |
Health-related behaviors | Lack of physical activity | 27.4% | 22.0% | 17.4% | 11.6% | <0.001 | 20.5% | 20.5% | 15.7% | <0.001 |
Insufficient fruit intake | 32.7% | 23.4% | 15.5% | 11.0% | <0.001 | 37.2% | 20.5% | 12.7% | <0.001 | |
Insufficient vegetable intake | 54.5% | 49.0% | 40.1% | 29.6% | <0.001 | 62.8% | 50.4% | 30.2% | <0.001 | |
Excessive consumption of processed or ultraprocessed foods | 40.4% | 32.2% | 27.5% | 26.3% | <0.001 | 35.3% | 29.1% | 28.4% | 0.136 | |
Screen exposure ≥ 6 h | 34.8% | 28.8% | 22.0% | 20.3% | <0.001 | 41.9% | 28.2% | 17.8% | <0.001 | |
Low level of contact with family and friends | 48.7% | 46.8% | 35.6% | 33.3% | <0.001 | 54.7% | 41.1% | 34.7% | <0.001 |
Type of Health Determinant | Variables | Boys | Girls | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Very Difficult to Make Ends Meet | Relatively Difficult | Easy | Very Difficult | Relatively Difficult | Easy | ||
Housing conditions | Lack of outdoor spaces | 1.53 (1.11–2.10) * | 1.51 (1.19–1.93) * | 1.13 (0.89–1.43) | 0.89 (0.58–1.36) | 1.29 (1.03–1.61) * | 1.00 (0.81–1.25) |
Presence of dampness | 2.36 (1.48–3.76) * | 1.87 (1.28–2.75) * | 1.03 (0.70–1.51) | 3.00 (1.66–5.44) * | 2.93 (1.85–4.64) * | 1.44 (0.91–2.29) | |
Lack of natural light | 6.30 (3.22–12.33) * | 3.29 (1.76–6.15) * | 2.13 (1.14–3.96) * | 10.27 (3.94–26.78) * | 7.12 (2.95–17.15) * | 4.22 (1.75–10.17) * | |
Noise | 3.10 (1.52–6.23) * | 2.11 (1.15–3.86) * | 0.46 (0.24–0.87) * | 3.86 (1.51–9.87) * | 3.30 (1.56–7.00) * | 1.16 (0.54–2.49) | |
Exposure to tobacco smoke | 1.94 (1.51–2.48) * | 1.68 (1.37–2.06) * | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) | 1.37 (0.99–1.89) | 1.71 (1.39–2.10) * | 1.11 (0.91–1.36) | |
Health-related behaviors | Lack of physical activity | 2.87 (1.98–4.16) * | 2.35 (1.71–3.24) * | 1.62 (1.18–2.23) | 2.52 (1.57–4.03) * | 2.09 (1.46–2.99) * | 1.73 (1.21–2.46) * |
Insufficient fruit intake | 1.94 (1.30–2.91) * | 2.19 (1.60–3.01) * | 1.57 (1.15–2.14) | 2.78 (1.84–4.21) * | 1.98 (1.43–2.75) * | 1.37 (0.99–1.89) | |
Insufficient vegetable intake | 1.09 (0.88–1.36) | 1.21 (1.04–1.41) * | 1.06 (0.91–1.22) | 1.63 (1.28–2.07) * | 1.50 (1.26–1.78) * | 1.27 (1.07–1.50) * | |
Excessive consumption of processed or ultraprocessed foods | 1.21 (0.94–1.56) | 0.99 (0.82–1.19) | 0.96 (0.80–1.15) | 1.72 (1.26–2.35) * | 1.33 (1.06–1.66) * | 1.16 (0.93–1.45) | |
Screen exposure ≥ 6 h | 1.44 (1.11–1.88) * | 1.08 (0.88–1.32) | 0.88 (0.72–1.08) | 1.52 (1.08–2.14) * | 1.28 (1.02–1.62) * | 1.05 (0.83–1.31) | |
Low level of contact with family and friends | 1.41 (1.15–1.74) * | 1.35 (1.15–1.58) * | 1.09 (0.93–1.27) | 1.43 (1.09–1.87) * | 1.46 (1.22–1.74) * | 1.09 (0.91–1.31) |
Type of Health Determinant | Variables | Boys | Girls | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary Studies | Secondary Studies | Primary Studies | Secondary Studies | ||
Housing conditions | Lack of outdoor spaces | 1.21 (0.98–1.50) | 1.13 (1.01–1.26) * | 0.90 (0.68–1.19) | 1.11 (0.99–1.24) |
Presence of dampness | 2.28 (1.73–3.00) * | 1.28 (1.07–1.54) * | 1.51 (1.04–2.17) * | 1.34 (1.11–1.61) * | |
Lack of natural light | 1.88 (1.32–2.68) * | 1.28 (1.03–1.58) * | 1.25 (0.79–1.97) | 1.18 (0.96–1.47) | |
Noise | 4.61 (2.89–7.35) * | 1.77 (1.23–2.55) * | 3.21 (1.80–2.21) * | 2.21 (1.53–3.20) * | |
Exposure to tobacco smoke | 1.98 (1.71–2.30) * | 1.44 (1.30–1.59) * | 1.42 (1.18–1.71) * | 1.25 (1.13–1.38) * | |
Health-related behaviors | Lack of physical activity | 1.81 (1.48–2.20) * | 1.23 (1.09–1.39) * | 1.27 (0.94–1.72) | 1.26 (1.09–1.45) * |
Insufficient fruit intake | 2.47 (2.04–2.99) * | 1.49 (1.30–1.70) * | 2.54 (2.02–3.18) * | 1.40 (1.20–1.63) * | |
Insufficient vegetable intake | 1.78 (1.59–1.99) * | 1.21 (1.20–1.40) * | 1.92 (1.68–2.19) * | 1.54 (1.41–1.68) * | |
Excessive consumption of processed or ultraprocessed foods | 0.87 (0.70–1.07) | 1.03 (0.94–1.13) | 1.19 (0.96–1.46) | 0.99 (0.89–1.09) | |
Screen exposure ≥ 6 h | 1.80 (1.48–2.19) * | 1.54 (1.36–1.73) * | 2.22 (1.81–2.71) * | 1.49 (1.31–1.69) * | |
Low level of contact with family and friends | 1.12 (0.97–1.29) | 1.13 (1.05–1.22) * | 1.63 (1.41–1.90) * | 1.23 (1.12–1.34) * |
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González-Rábago, Y.; Cabezas-Rodríguez, A.; Martín, U. Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4087. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084087
González-Rábago Y, Cabezas-Rodríguez A, Martín U. Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):4087. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084087
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonzález-Rábago, Yolanda, Andrea Cabezas-Rodríguez, and Unai Martín. 2021. "Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 4087. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084087
APA StyleGonzález-Rábago, Y., Cabezas-Rodríguez, A., & Martín, U. (2021). Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 4087. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084087