Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Data
2.2. Green Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Access to Green and/or Blue Space
3.2. Green and/or Blue Space Visitation
3.3. Changes in Use and Felt Benefits from Visiting Green or Blue Spaces
3.4. Geographic Variation
3.5. Between-City Differences
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | % | Minutes Walking to the Nearest Green/Blue Space | Nearest Green/Blue Space Preferred to Visit Locally and Most Often | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 8.3 (7.8, 8.7) | 53.9 (51.5, 56.4) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 7.5 (7.0, 8.0) | 56.6 (53.1, 60.0) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 9.0 (8.2, 9.8) | 1.20 (1.16, 1.23) | 51.3 (47.9, 54.7) | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 8.5 (6.1, 10.9) | 47.4 (37.0, 57.9) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 7.9 (6.8, 9.0) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.13) | 50.8 (44.5, 57.0) | 0.95 (0.58, 1.50) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 8.8 (7.6, 9.9) | 1.14 (1.05, 1.24) | 52.1 (46.3, 57.8) | 1.23 (0.75, 1.92) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 8.0 (7.0, 8.9) | 1.13 (1.04, 1.23) | 51.1 (45.7, 56.4) | 1.13 (0.69, 1.77) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 7.8 (7.1, 8.4) | 1.19 (1.09, 1.29) | 54.4 (49.5, 59.3) | 1.19 (0.72, 1.85) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 8.3 (7.5, 9.2) | 1.18 (1.08, 1.28) | 61.2 (56.1, 66.0) | 1.28 (0.73, 2.12) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 9.1 (7.8, 10.5) | 1.34 (1.21, 1.48) | 70.9 (63.5, 77.3) | 2.13 (1.11, 3.76) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 7.9 (7.1, 8.7) | 51.7 (47.0, 56.4) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 7.2 (6.1, 8.3) | 0.89 (0.84, 0.94) | 44.9 (37.9, 52.0) | 0.84 (0.62, 1.12) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 8.1 (6.3, 9.9) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.04) | 53.7 (45.0, 62.1) | 1.13 (0.80, 1.56) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 7.9 (6.9, 8.9) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.07) | 53.7 (47.2, 60.0) | 0.91 (0.69, 1.19) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 9.9 (8.0, 11.7) | 1.06 (1.01, 1.12) | 56.9 (47.9, 65.4) | 1.09 (0.75, 1.53) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 8.6 (7.9, 9.3) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.05) | 63.2 (59.0, 67.1) | 1.16 (0.83, 1.59) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 8.9 (6.7, 11.0) | 1.12 (1.04, 1.21) | 46.6 (32.6, 61.1) | 0.75 (0.43, 1.21) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 9.5 (8.3, 10.6) | 62.9 (56.9, 68.5) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 8.4 (7.0, 9.7) | 0.87 (0.83, 0.92) | 50.4 (44.0, 56.8) | 0.65 (0.46, 0.89) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 8.3 (7.5, 9.1) | 0.95 (0.91, 0.99) | 55.6 (51.4, 59.7) | 0.82 (0.61, 1.08) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 7.2 (6.5, 7.8) | 0.85 (0.81, 0.89) | 48.6 (43.9, 53.3) | 0.59 (0.44, 0.77) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 8.3 (7.1, 9.5) | 0.90 (0.86, 0.95) | 52.7 (46.6, 58.8) | 0.66 (0.47, 0.90) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 9.6 (8.6, 10.6) | 60.2 (55.6, 64.6) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 9.1 (8.1, 10.1) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 52.6 (48.2, 56.9) | 0.87 (0.69, 1.09) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 7.2 (6.4, 7.9) | 0.90 (0.86, 0.95) | 54.6 (48.8, 60.2) | 0.99 (0.73, 1.31) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 6.2 (5.5, 7.0) | 0.84 (0.80, 0.89) | 47.1 (41.2, 53.1) | 0.85 (0.60, 1.15) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 6.7 (6.1, 7.2) | 53.6 (49.2, 58.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 8.5 (7.7, 9.2) | 1.16 (1.12, 1.20) | 53.6 (49.9, 57.4) | 1.00 (0.82, 1.22) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 9.5 (8.5, 10.6) | 1.27 (1.22, 1.33) | 55.6 (49.9, 61.1) | 1.03 (0.79, 1.33) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 9.5 (7.8, 11.2) | 1.24 (1.17, 1.31) | 52.9 (44.9, 60.8) | 0.92 (0.65, 1.28) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 7.8 (7.3, 8.4) | 49.4 (45.7, 53.1) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 8.0 (7.0, 8.9) | 0.94 (0.91, 0.97) | 56.3 (51.8, 60.7) | 1.23 (1.01, 1.48) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 9.4 (8.3, 10.5) | 1.06 (1.03, 1.10) | 59.3 (54.7, 63.8) | 1.30 (1.05, 1.57) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.05 (0.02, 0.12) | <0.01 (<0.01, 0.03) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.03 (0.01, 0.09) | <0.01 (<0.01, 0.04) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 27.5 | - |
How Much Further Is It to Walk to Your Preferred Green/Blue Space, If Not the Nearest? (Minutes) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | |
Full sample | 1122 | 22.0 (20.2, 23.9) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 484 | 43.1 | 20.6 (17.9, 23.2) | |
Male | 638 | 56.9 | 23.3 (20.7, 25.9) | 1.05 (1.02, 1.08) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 41 | 3.7 | 23.7 (15.1, 32.4) | |
25–34 | 173 | 15.4 | 25.0 (20.2, 29.7) | 1.01 (0.94, 1.09) |
35–44 | 195 | 17.4 | 25.6 (21.7, 29.6) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) |
45–54 | 205 | 18.3 | 23.9 (19.7, 28.0) | 0.85 (0.79, 0.92) |
55–64 | 233 | 20.8 | 17.2 (14.2, 20.3) | 0.71 (0.66, 0.76) |
65–74 | 207 | 18.5 | 16.2 (12.6, 19.8) | 0.57 (0.52, 0.62) |
75+ | 68 | 6.1 | 12.2 (7.6, 16.8) | 0.41 (0.37, 0.46) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 294 | 26.2 | 22.9 (19.0, 26.7) | |
Employed, working from home sometimes | 140 | 12.5 | 20.9 (16.2, 25.6) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.03) |
Employed, working from home often | 89 | 7.9 | 21.5 (15.5, 27.5) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.07) |
Employed, working from home always | 173 | 15.4 | 17.3 (14.1, 20.5) | 0.81 (0.77, 0.85) |
Unemployed | 75 | 6.7 | 27.1 (20.0, 34.3) | 1.08 (1.02, 1.14) |
Retired | 280 | 25.0 | 17.0 (13.9, 20.2) | 1.35 (1.27, 1.42) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 33 | 2.9 | 38.6 (24.8, 52.5) | 1.46 (1.36, 1.57) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 112 | 10.0 | 21.0 (15.4, 26.6) | |
Year 12 | 138 | 12.3 | 21.3 (17.1, 25.5) | 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 283 | 25.2 | 22.8 (19.4, 26.2) | 1.02 (0.98, 1.08) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 402 | 35.8 | 23.8 (20.3, 27.4) | 1.20 (1.14, 1.26) |
Postgraduate qualification | 187 | 16.7 | 17.9 (13.4, 22.5) | 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 282 | 25.1 | 22.7 (18.5, 26.9) | |
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 357 | 31.8 | 25.0 (21.5, 28.6) | 1.07 (1.03, 1.11) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 206 | 18.4 | 21.5 (17.9, 25.2) | 1.07 (1.02, 1.12) |
>AUD 150,000 | 214 | 19.1 | 18.3 (14.8, 21.9) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.04) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 353 | 31.5 | 19.9 (16.4, 23.3) | |
Doing ok | 480 | 42.8 | 21.8 (18.9, 24.8) | 1.12 (1.08, 1.16) |
Getting by | 194 | 17.3 | 22.0 (18.4, 25.5) | 1.12 (1.07, 1.17) |
Difficult or very difficult | 95 | 8.5 | 29.4 (23.2, 35.6) | 1.43 (1.36, 1.50) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 514 | 45.8 | 22.1 (19.5, 24.7) | |
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 331 | 29.5 | 20.2 (17.0, 23.5) | 0.93 (0.90, 0.96) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 277 | 24.7 | 24.2 (19.8, 28.6) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.05 (0.03, 0.11) | |||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.02, 0.10) | |||
Percentage reduction in variance | 14.6 |
N | % | Total Hours in Green/Blue Space in the Last 7 Days | N Types of Green/Blue Spaces Visited in the Last 7 Days | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 3.2 (3.1, 3.3) | 1.6 (1.5, 1.7) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.8) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 3.1 (3.0, 3.3) | 0.79 (0.76, 0.81) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6) | 0.93 (0.87, 0.99) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 2.1 (1.7, 2.6) | 1.2 (1.0, 1.5) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 3.0 (2.8, 3.3) | 1.48 (1.30, 1.69) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.09 (0.89, 1.32) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 3.1 (2.9, 3.4) | 1.78 (1.56, 2.03) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.19 (0.98, 1.44) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 3.0 (2.7, 3.2) | 1.52 (1.33, 1.73) | 1.7 (1.5, 1.9) | 1.19 (0.97, 1.44) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 3.5 (3.3, 3.8) | 2.03 (1.78, 2.31) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.12 (0.92, 1.37) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 4.1 (3.9, 4.4) | 2.14 (1.86, 2.45) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.9) | 1.08 (0.87, 1.34) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 3.9 (3.5, 4.3) | 1.96 (1.68, 2.25) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.1) | 1.09 (0.86, 1.37) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 2.9 (2.6, 3.1) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.5) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 3.2 (2.9, 3.6) | 1.06 (1.00, 1.12) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.9) | 1.08 (0.97, 1.21) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 3.4 (3.0, 3.8) | 1.01 (0.94, 1.08) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.27 (1.13, 1.43) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 3.3 (3.0, 3.7) | 1.19 (1.13, 1.26) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.14 (1.03, 1.26) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 2.6 (2.2, 3.1) | 0.98 (0.90, 1.06) | 1.3 (1.1, 1.6) | 1.05 (0.91, 1.21) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 4.1 (3.9, 4.3) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | 1.8 (1.7, 2.0) | 1.30 (1.15, 1.46) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 2.4 (1.5, 3.2) | 0.79 (0.70, 0.90) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.1) | 0.75 (0.58, 0.95) |
Highest educational qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 3.2 (2.9, 3.5) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.6) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 2.7 (2.4, 3.0) | 0.88 (0.82, 0.94) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.6) | 1.03 (0.91, 1.17) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 0.96 (0.91, 1.01) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.07 (0.96, 1.18) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 3.4 (3.1, 3.6) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.8) | 1.21 (1.09, 1.33) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 3.8 (3.5, 4.1) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.06) | 1.9 (1.8, 2.1) | 1.32 (1.18, 1.48) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 3.1 (2.8, 3.3) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 1.05 (0.96, 1.14) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 3.1 (2.8, 3.4) | 0.92 (0.86, 0.97) | 1.7 (1.5, 1.9) | 1.11 (0.99, 1.23) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 3.6 (3.3, 3.9) | 1.05 (0.98, 1.11) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.15 (1.02, 1.29) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 3.6 (3.4, 3.8) | 1.8 (1.6, 1.9) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 3.2 (3.0, 3.4) | 0.89 (0.86, 0.93) | 1.6 (1.5, 1.7) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 3.0 (2.7, 3.2) | 0.80 (0.76, 0.84) | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.97) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 2.8 (2.4, 3.1) | 0.79 (0.74, 0.85) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.6) | 0.83 (0.72, 0.94) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 2.6 (2.5, 2.8) | 1.3 (1.2, 1.4) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 3.5 (3.2, 3.7) | 1.42 (1.37, 1.48) | 1.8 (1.6, 1.9) | 1.32 (1.23, 1.42) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 4.0 (3.8, 4.2) | 1.81 (1.74, 1.88) | 1.9 (1.8, 2.0) | 1.47 (1.37, 1.58) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.12 (0.05, 0.26) | 0.01 (<0.01, 0.02) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.02, 0.10) | 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 61.4 | - |
N | % | Visited Preferred Green/Blue Space at Least Once a Week in Last 4 Weeks | Visit Green/Blue Spaces More Often Now than before COVID | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 52.0 (49.6, 54.4) | 27.6 (25.5, 29.9) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 53.2 (49.7, 56.7) | 26.9 (23.8, 30.3) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 50.8 (47.4, 54.2) | 0.88 (0.74, 1.04) | 28.3 (25.4, 31.5) | 1.18 (0.97, 1.44) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 42.0 (32.0, 52.7) | 37.3 (27.7, 48.0) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 47.7 (41.4, 53.9) | 1.33 (0.78, 2.13) | 37.2 (31.4, 43.5) | 1.00 (0.59, 1.63) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 46.5 (40.9, 52.3) | 1.45 (0.84, 2.33) | 34.4 (29.2, 40.0) | 0.78 (0.45, 1.27) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 51.5 (46.1, 56.9) | 1.61 (0.93, 2.57) | 21.7 (17.7, 26.4) | 0.53 (0.30, 0.87) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 56.4 (51.5, 61.3) | 1.76 (1.02, 2.82) | 16.3 (13.1, 20.2) | 0.40 (0.22, 0.65) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 65.4 (60.5, 70.1) | 1.65 (0.89, 2.76) | 19.8 (16.1, 24.2) | 0.48 (0.24, 0.82) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 59.8 (52.2, 66.9) | 1.32 (0.66, 2.34) | 21.5 (15.9, 28.4) | 0.46 (0.21, 0.84) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 47.6 (43.0, 52.3) | 24.4 (20.4, 28.7) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 45.6 (38.7, 52.8) | 0.97 (0.71, 1.29) | 27.6 (21.5, 34.6) | 1.20 (0.84, 1.67) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 52.1 (43.4, 60.6) | 1.24 (0.87, 1.72) | 30.4 (23.2, 38.7) | 1.52 (1.02, 2.16) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 55.6 (49.1, 61.9) | 1.13 (0.85, 1.49) | 47.8 (41.4, 54.3) | 2.01 (1.46, 2.71) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 53.1 (44.0, 61.9) | 1.54 (1.06, 2.17) | 28.7 (20.9, 38.1) | 1.05 (0.67, 1.54) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 64.4 (60.2, 68.4) | 1.91 (1.35, 2.64) | 19.4 (16.3, 22.9) | 1.14 (0.74, 1.69) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 30.5 (19.0, 45.1) | 0.60 (0.33, 0.99) | 13.3 (7.1, 23.7) | 0.86 (0.39, 1.58) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 53.9 (47.9, 59.8) | 18.1 (14.0, 23.0) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 46.2 (39.8, 52.6) | 1.00 (0.70, 1.39) | 28.4 (22.6, 35.0) | 0.83 (0.54, 1.22) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 51.7 (47.5, 55.9) | 1.05 (0.78, 1.38) | 23.3 (19.8, 27.1) | 0.93 (0.65, 1.29) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 52.9 (48.1, 57.6) | 1.38 (1.02, 1.82) | 38.7 (34.2, 43.4) | 1.26 (0.90, 1.75) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 60.6 (54.4, 66.5) | 1.64 (1.16, 2.26) | 34.9 (29.2, 41.1) | 1.12 (0.75, 1.61) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 52.3 (47.8, 56.8) | 23.9 (20.1, 28.1) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 49.4 (45.1, 53.8) | 1.14 (0.89, 1.42) | 22.9 (19.3, 26.9) | 0.88 (0.66, 1.15) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 50.7 (45.0, 56.5) | 1.02 (0.75, 1.35) | 32.4 (27.2, 38.0) | 1.16 (0.81, 1.60) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 57.6 (51.6, 63.4) | 1.18 (0.84, 1.61) | 33.6 (28.2, 39.4) | 1.05 (0.71, 1.50) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 58.9 (54.4, 63.2) | 27.8 (23.9, 32.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 52.5 (48.7, 56.2) | 0.83 (0.68, 1.01) | 28.5 (25.2, 32.1) | 1.08 (0.85, 1.35) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 44.0 (38.5, 49.5) | 0.62 (0.47, 0.79) | 28.4 (23.5, 34.0) | 1.21 (0.88, 1.61) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 45.3 (37.5, 53.3) | 0.56 (0.39, 0.78) | 21.4 (15.2, 29.4) | 0.77 (0.49, 1.14) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 42.6 (39.0, 46.3) | 25.2 (22.0, 28.7) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 57.5 (52.9, 61.9) | 1.79 (1.47, 2.16) | 31.1 (27.0, 35.5) | 1.38 (1.10, 1.71) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 62.5 (57.9, 66.9) | 2.06 (1.67, 2.52) | 28.0 (23.9, 32.4) | 1.36 (1.06, 1.70) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.06 (0.02, 0.16) | 0.46 (0.16, 1.13) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.07 (0.02, 0.19) | 0.31 (0.10, 0.82) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | - | 30.8 |
N | % | Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces Have Helped Me to Stay Connected during the Pandemic | Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces Have Brought Me Solace and Respite in These Challenging Times | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample N | 2697 | 100 | 25.7 (23.7, 27.9) | 53.7 (51.3, 56.1) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 23.0 (20.2, 26.1) | 47.5 (44.0, 51.0) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 28.4 (25.5, 31.4) | 1.47 (1.21, 1.76) | 59.8 (56.4, 63.1) | 1.74 (1.45, 2.06) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 15.0 (9.0, 23.8) | 52.4 (41.8, 62.7) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 27.6 (22.3, 33.6) | 1.84 (0.95, 3.43) | 65.0 (58.8, 70.7) | 1.32 (0.77, 2.12) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 31.5 (26.3, 37.2) | 2.20 (1.13, 4.12) | 51.7 (45.9, 57.4) | 0.78 (0.46, 1.24) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 25.0 (20.6, 30.0) | 1.86 (0.97, 3.48) | 53.2 (47.7, 58.5) | 0.82 (0.48, 1.30) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 21.2 (17.6, 25.3) | 1.76 (0.90, 3.30) | 49.2 (44.3, 54.1) | 0.79 (0.46, 1.25) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 27.0 (22.7, 31.8) | 2.25 (1.08, 4.40) | 51.2 (46.0, 56.3) | 0.73 (0.39, 1.21) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 30.5 (24.1, 37.7) | 3.10 (1.37, 6.32) | 44.8 (37.6, 52.3) | 0.54 (0.27, 0.96) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 24.4 (20.5, 28.7) | 49.1 (44.4, 53.8) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 27.3 (21.2, 34.3) | 1.19 (0.84, 1.64) | 54.4 (47.2, 61.4) | 1.36 (0.99, 1.82) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 26.9 (20.1, 34.9) | 1.40 (0.95, 1.98) | 56.8 (48.0, 65.2) | 1.57 (1.08, 2.20) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 29.7 (24.2, 36.0) | 1.19 (0.86, 1.59) | 65.2 (58.8, 71.0) | 1.54 (1.13, 2.05) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 24.3 (17.4, 32.9) | 1.34 (0.87, 1.98) | 52.3 (43.3, 61.2) | 1.28 (0.88, 1.82) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 27.0 (23.5, 30.9) | 1.22 (0.83, 1.73) | 50.1 (45.9, 54.3) | 1.47 (1.05, 2.02) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 12.9 (7.0, 22.4) | 1.13 (0.54, 2.01) | 46.5 (32.6, 60.9) | 1.55 (0.86, 2.58) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 20.4 (16.2, 25.3) | 41.9 (36.2, 47.9) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 22.2 (17.5, 27.8) | 1.35 (0.90, 1.96) | 50.3 (43.9, 56.7) | 1.16 (0.82, 1.62) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 26.4 (22.8, 30.4) | 1.33 (0.95, 1.82) | 52.2 (48.0, 56.3) | 1.33 (0.99, 1.75) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 29.8 (25.7, 34.2) | 1.54 (1.10, 2.10) | 63.5 (58.9, 67.8) | 1.77 (1.32, 2.34) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 29.2 (23.9, 35.1) | 1.53 (1.04, 2.16) | 63.6 (57.5, 69.3) | 1.84 (1.31, 2.54) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 24.9 (21.2, 28.9) | 50.4 (45.9, 54.9) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 22.2 (18.9, 25.9) | 0.97 (0.75, 1.25) | 50.4 (46.0, 54.8) | 1.06 (0.83, 1.33) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 30.8 (25.7, 36.4) | 1.11 (0.79, 1.51) | 53.8 (48.0, 59.5) | 1.13 (0.83, 1.51) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 29.3 (24.0, 35.1) | 1.06 (0.73, 1.50) | 64.2 (58.3, 69.6) | 1.36 (0.95, 1.88) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 27.9 (24.1, 32.1) | 58.9 (54.5, 63.1) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 26.9 (23.8, 30.4) | 1.09 (0.87, 1.34) | 52.6 (48.9, 56.4) | 1.01 (0.81, 1.23) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 24.7 (20.3, 29.8) | 1.00 (0.75, 1.32) | 50.6 (44.9, 56.2) | 0.92 (0.70, 1.19) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 15.1 (10.4, 21.5) | 0.59 (0.37, 0.86) | 49.6 (41.6, 57.6) | 0.73 (0.50, 1.02) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 19.0 (16.3, 22.0) | 38.1 (34.5, 41.7) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 27.0 (23.3, 31.0) | 1.65 (1.32, 2.04) | 63.1 (58.7, 67.3) | 2.94 (2.40, 3.56) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 36.3 (31.9, 41.0) | 2.27 (1.79, 2.81) | 70.7 (66.5, 74.6) | 3.73 (3.01, 4.59) |
Random Effects Unadjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) † | 0.06 (0.01, 0.17) | 0.07 (0.02, 0.22) | ||||
Adjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.01, 0.18) | 0.07 (0.01, 0.23) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 1.4 | 4.6 |
N | % | I Now Walk and/or Exercise in Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces More Often than Before COVID | I Have Discovered and Visited Green/Blue Spaces That I Had Not Visited Before the Pandemic | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample N | 2697 | 100 | 28.2 (26.0, 30.5) | 27.1 (24.9, 29.5) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 27.1 (24.0, 30.4) | 25.2 (22.1, 28.6) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 29.3 (26.2, 32.5) | 1.19 (0.98, 1.44) | 29.0 (25.9, 32.2) | 1.24 (1.02, 1.50) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 38.6 (28.9, 49.3) | 40.8 (30.9, 51.6) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 39.7 (33.7, 45.9) | 1.02 (0.58, 1.65) | 37.5 (31.6, 43.8) | 0.79 (0.47, 1.27) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 30.7 (25.7, 36.1) | 0.69 (0.39, 1.13) | 34.3 (29.1, 39.9) | 0.62 (0.36, 0.99) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 22.8 (18.7, 27.5) | 0.56 (0.32, 0.93) | 20.6 (16.6, 25.2) | 0.36 (0.21, 0.58) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 16.3 (13.0, 20.1) | 0.39 (0.22, 0.65) | 15.1 (12.0, 18.8) | 0.29 (0.17, 0.47) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 21.5 (17.6, 26.0) | 0.54 (0.28, 0.95) | 17.7 (14.1, 22.1) | 0.38 (0.20, 0.66) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 25.0 (19.0, 32.2) | 0.56 (0.26, 1.03) | 17.4 (12.4, 23.7) | 0.40 (0.19, 0.74) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 25.2 (21.3, 29.7) | 27.0 (22.9, 31.6) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 28.0 (21.8, 35.1) | 1.11 (0.77, 1.52) | 29.8 (23.5, 36.9) | 1.26 (0.89, 1.72) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 33.9 (26.4, 42.4) | 1.61 (1.10, 2.27) | 29.4 (22.3, 37.8) | 1.32 (0.89, 1.89) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 43.5 (37.2, 50.0) | 1.66 (1.20, 2.22) | 41.4 (35.2, 48.0) | 1.43 (1.03, 1.92) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 31.6 (23.7, 40.7) | 1.19 (0.78, 1.74) | 27.9 (19.9, 37.6) | 0.80 (0.50, 1.19) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 20.7 (17.5, 24.3) | 1.07 (0.71, 1.55) | 16.1 (13.2, 19.4) | 0.84 (0.55, 1.26) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 14.1 (7.7, 24.3) | 1.01 (0.48, 1.80) | 15.4 (8.6, 26.0) | 1.16 (0.55, 2.11) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 22.0 (17.3, 27.4) | 16.3 (12.4, 21.2) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 31.1 (25.3, 37.7) | 0.84 (0.56, 1.23) | 28.2 (22.5, 34.8) | 1.01 (0.66, 1.50) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 22.7 (19.3, 26.6) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.08) | 23.3 (19.7, 27.3) | 1.01 (0.70, 1.42) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 36.8 (32.4, 41.4) | 1.15 (0.82, 1.60) | 36.1 (31.6, 40.8) | 1.27 (0.89, 1.77) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 35.6 (29.8, 41.8) | 1.05 (0.71, 1.51) | 37.7 (31.7, 44.1) | 1.42 (0.96, 2.07) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 26.1 (22.1, 30.4) | 21.7 (18.0, 25.8) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 24.6 (21.0, 28.6) | 1.01 (0.76, 1.30) | 22.0 (18.6, 25.9) | 1.09 (0.82, 1.43) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 30.3 (25.3, 35.9) | 1.13 (0.80, 1.57) | 33.1 (27.9, 38.8) | 1.33 (0.94, 1.86) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 34.8 (29.3, 40.7) | 1.19 (0.81, 1.68) | 36.4 (30.7, 42.5) | 1.35 (0.91, 1.92) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 29.3 (25.4, 33.5) | 26.7 (22.9, 31.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 28.7 (25.3, 32.3) | 1.06 (0.85, 1.32) | 28.5 (25.1, 32.1) | 1.10 (0.88, 1.38) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 24.9 (20.3, 30.1) | 1.00 (0.73, 1.32) | 26.9 (22.0, 32.4) | 1.14 (0.83, 1.53) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 28.9 (21.8, 37.2) | 0.89 (0.59, 1.30) | 22.3 (15.9, 30.5) | 0.85 (0.54, 1.26) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 25.1 (22.0, 28.5) | 23.3 (20.2, 26.8) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 32.2 (28.1, 36.7) | 1.40 (1.12, 1.73) | 28.2 (24.3, 32.5) | 1.46 (1.16, 1.82) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 28.9 (24.7, 33.5) | 1.33 (1.05, 1.67) | 32.7 (28.2, 37.5) | 1.65 (1.29, 2.07) |
Random Effects Unadjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) † | 0.40 (0.14, 0.98) | 0.34 (0.10, 0.90) | ||||
Adjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) | 0.29 (0.10, 0.75) | 0.21 (0.05, 0.63) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 30.0 | 61.1 |
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Astell-Burt, T.; Feng, X. Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757
Astell-Burt T, Feng X. Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(5):2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757
Chicago/Turabian StyleAstell-Burt, Thomas, and Xiaoqi Feng. 2021. "Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5: 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757
APA StyleAstell-Burt, T., & Feng, X. (2021). Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757