Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Data
2.2. Green Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Access to Green and/or Blue Space
3.2. Green and/or Blue Space Visitation
3.3. Changes in Use and Felt Benefits from Visiting Green or Blue Spaces
3.4. Geographic Variation
3.5. Between-City Differences
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | % | Minutes Walking to the Nearest Green/Blue Space | Nearest Green/Blue Space Preferred to Visit Locally and Most Often | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 8.3 (7.8, 8.7) | 53.9 (51.5, 56.4) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 7.5 (7.0, 8.0) | 56.6 (53.1, 60.0) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 9.0 (8.2, 9.8) | 1.20 (1.16, 1.23) | 51.3 (47.9, 54.7) | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 8.5 (6.1, 10.9) | 47.4 (37.0, 57.9) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 7.9 (6.8, 9.0) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.13) | 50.8 (44.5, 57.0) | 0.95 (0.58, 1.50) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 8.8 (7.6, 9.9) | 1.14 (1.05, 1.24) | 52.1 (46.3, 57.8) | 1.23 (0.75, 1.92) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 8.0 (7.0, 8.9) | 1.13 (1.04, 1.23) | 51.1 (45.7, 56.4) | 1.13 (0.69, 1.77) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 7.8 (7.1, 8.4) | 1.19 (1.09, 1.29) | 54.4 (49.5, 59.3) | 1.19 (0.72, 1.85) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 8.3 (7.5, 9.2) | 1.18 (1.08, 1.28) | 61.2 (56.1, 66.0) | 1.28 (0.73, 2.12) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 9.1 (7.8, 10.5) | 1.34 (1.21, 1.48) | 70.9 (63.5, 77.3) | 2.13 (1.11, 3.76) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 7.9 (7.1, 8.7) | 51.7 (47.0, 56.4) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 7.2 (6.1, 8.3) | 0.89 (0.84, 0.94) | 44.9 (37.9, 52.0) | 0.84 (0.62, 1.12) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 8.1 (6.3, 9.9) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.04) | 53.7 (45.0, 62.1) | 1.13 (0.80, 1.56) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 7.9 (6.9, 8.9) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.07) | 53.7 (47.2, 60.0) | 0.91 (0.69, 1.19) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 9.9 (8.0, 11.7) | 1.06 (1.01, 1.12) | 56.9 (47.9, 65.4) | 1.09 (0.75, 1.53) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 8.6 (7.9, 9.3) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.05) | 63.2 (59.0, 67.1) | 1.16 (0.83, 1.59) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 8.9 (6.7, 11.0) | 1.12 (1.04, 1.21) | 46.6 (32.6, 61.1) | 0.75 (0.43, 1.21) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 9.5 (8.3, 10.6) | 62.9 (56.9, 68.5) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 8.4 (7.0, 9.7) | 0.87 (0.83, 0.92) | 50.4 (44.0, 56.8) | 0.65 (0.46, 0.89) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 8.3 (7.5, 9.1) | 0.95 (0.91, 0.99) | 55.6 (51.4, 59.7) | 0.82 (0.61, 1.08) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 7.2 (6.5, 7.8) | 0.85 (0.81, 0.89) | 48.6 (43.9, 53.3) | 0.59 (0.44, 0.77) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 8.3 (7.1, 9.5) | 0.90 (0.86, 0.95) | 52.7 (46.6, 58.8) | 0.66 (0.47, 0.90) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 9.6 (8.6, 10.6) | 60.2 (55.6, 64.6) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 9.1 (8.1, 10.1) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 52.6 (48.2, 56.9) | 0.87 (0.69, 1.09) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 7.2 (6.4, 7.9) | 0.90 (0.86, 0.95) | 54.6 (48.8, 60.2) | 0.99 (0.73, 1.31) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 6.2 (5.5, 7.0) | 0.84 (0.80, 0.89) | 47.1 (41.2, 53.1) | 0.85 (0.60, 1.15) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 6.7 (6.1, 7.2) | 53.6 (49.2, 58.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 8.5 (7.7, 9.2) | 1.16 (1.12, 1.20) | 53.6 (49.9, 57.4) | 1.00 (0.82, 1.22) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 9.5 (8.5, 10.6) | 1.27 (1.22, 1.33) | 55.6 (49.9, 61.1) | 1.03 (0.79, 1.33) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 9.5 (7.8, 11.2) | 1.24 (1.17, 1.31) | 52.9 (44.9, 60.8) | 0.92 (0.65, 1.28) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 7.8 (7.3, 8.4) | 49.4 (45.7, 53.1) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 8.0 (7.0, 8.9) | 0.94 (0.91, 0.97) | 56.3 (51.8, 60.7) | 1.23 (1.01, 1.48) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 9.4 (8.3, 10.5) | 1.06 (1.03, 1.10) | 59.3 (54.7, 63.8) | 1.30 (1.05, 1.57) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.05 (0.02, 0.12) | <0.01 (<0.01, 0.03) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.03 (0.01, 0.09) | <0.01 (<0.01, 0.04) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 27.5 | - |
How Much Further Is It to Walk to Your Preferred Green/Blue Space, If Not the Nearest? (Minutes) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | |
Full sample | 1122 | 22.0 (20.2, 23.9) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 484 | 43.1 | 20.6 (17.9, 23.2) | |
Male | 638 | 56.9 | 23.3 (20.7, 25.9) | 1.05 (1.02, 1.08) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 41 | 3.7 | 23.7 (15.1, 32.4) | |
25–34 | 173 | 15.4 | 25.0 (20.2, 29.7) | 1.01 (0.94, 1.09) |
35–44 | 195 | 17.4 | 25.6 (21.7, 29.6) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) |
45–54 | 205 | 18.3 | 23.9 (19.7, 28.0) | 0.85 (0.79, 0.92) |
55–64 | 233 | 20.8 | 17.2 (14.2, 20.3) | 0.71 (0.66, 0.76) |
65–74 | 207 | 18.5 | 16.2 (12.6, 19.8) | 0.57 (0.52, 0.62) |
75+ | 68 | 6.1 | 12.2 (7.6, 16.8) | 0.41 (0.37, 0.46) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 294 | 26.2 | 22.9 (19.0, 26.7) | |
Employed, working from home sometimes | 140 | 12.5 | 20.9 (16.2, 25.6) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.03) |
Employed, working from home often | 89 | 7.9 | 21.5 (15.5, 27.5) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.07) |
Employed, working from home always | 173 | 15.4 | 17.3 (14.1, 20.5) | 0.81 (0.77, 0.85) |
Unemployed | 75 | 6.7 | 27.1 (20.0, 34.3) | 1.08 (1.02, 1.14) |
Retired | 280 | 25.0 | 17.0 (13.9, 20.2) | 1.35 (1.27, 1.42) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 33 | 2.9 | 38.6 (24.8, 52.5) | 1.46 (1.36, 1.57) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 112 | 10.0 | 21.0 (15.4, 26.6) | |
Year 12 | 138 | 12.3 | 21.3 (17.1, 25.5) | 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 283 | 25.2 | 22.8 (19.4, 26.2) | 1.02 (0.98, 1.08) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 402 | 35.8 | 23.8 (20.3, 27.4) | 1.20 (1.14, 1.26) |
Postgraduate qualification | 187 | 16.7 | 17.9 (13.4, 22.5) | 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 282 | 25.1 | 22.7 (18.5, 26.9) | |
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 357 | 31.8 | 25.0 (21.5, 28.6) | 1.07 (1.03, 1.11) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 206 | 18.4 | 21.5 (17.9, 25.2) | 1.07 (1.02, 1.12) |
>AUD 150,000 | 214 | 19.1 | 18.3 (14.8, 21.9) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.04) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 353 | 31.5 | 19.9 (16.4, 23.3) | |
Doing ok | 480 | 42.8 | 21.8 (18.9, 24.8) | 1.12 (1.08, 1.16) |
Getting by | 194 | 17.3 | 22.0 (18.4, 25.5) | 1.12 (1.07, 1.17) |
Difficult or very difficult | 95 | 8.5 | 29.4 (23.2, 35.6) | 1.43 (1.36, 1.50) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 514 | 45.8 | 22.1 (19.5, 24.7) | |
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 331 | 29.5 | 20.2 (17.0, 23.5) | 0.93 (0.90, 0.96) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 277 | 24.7 | 24.2 (19.8, 28.6) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.05 (0.03, 0.11) | |||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.02, 0.10) | |||
Percentage reduction in variance | 14.6 |
N | % | Total Hours in Green/Blue Space in the Last 7 Days | N Types of Green/Blue Spaces Visited in the Last 7 Days | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | Mean (95% CI) | IRR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 3.2 (3.1, 3.3) | 1.6 (1.5, 1.7) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.8) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 3.1 (3.0, 3.3) | 0.79 (0.76, 0.81) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6) | 0.93 (0.87, 0.99) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 2.1 (1.7, 2.6) | 1.2 (1.0, 1.5) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 3.0 (2.8, 3.3) | 1.48 (1.30, 1.69) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.09 (0.89, 1.32) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 3.1 (2.9, 3.4) | 1.78 (1.56, 2.03) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.19 (0.98, 1.44) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 3.0 (2.7, 3.2) | 1.52 (1.33, 1.73) | 1.7 (1.5, 1.9) | 1.19 (0.97, 1.44) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 3.5 (3.3, 3.8) | 2.03 (1.78, 2.31) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.12 (0.92, 1.37) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 4.1 (3.9, 4.4) | 2.14 (1.86, 2.45) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.9) | 1.08 (0.87, 1.34) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 3.9 (3.5, 4.3) | 1.96 (1.68, 2.25) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.1) | 1.09 (0.86, 1.37) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 2.9 (2.6, 3.1) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.5) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 3.2 (2.9, 3.6) | 1.06 (1.00, 1.12) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.9) | 1.08 (0.97, 1.21) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 3.4 (3.0, 3.8) | 1.01 (0.94, 1.08) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.27 (1.13, 1.43) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 3.3 (3.0, 3.7) | 1.19 (1.13, 1.26) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.14 (1.03, 1.26) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 2.6 (2.2, 3.1) | 0.98 (0.90, 1.06) | 1.3 (1.1, 1.6) | 1.05 (0.91, 1.21) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 4.1 (3.9, 4.3) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | 1.8 (1.7, 2.0) | 1.30 (1.15, 1.46) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 2.4 (1.5, 3.2) | 0.79 (0.70, 0.90) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.1) | 0.75 (0.58, 0.95) |
Highest educational qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 3.2 (2.9, 3.5) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.6) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 2.7 (2.4, 3.0) | 0.88 (0.82, 0.94) | 1.4 (1.3, 1.6) | 1.03 (0.91, 1.17) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 0.96 (0.91, 1.01) | 1.6 (1.4, 1.7) | 1.07 (0.96, 1.18) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 3.4 (3.1, 3.6) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.8) | 1.21 (1.09, 1.33) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 3.8 (3.5, 4.1) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.06) | 1.9 (1.8, 2.1) | 1.32 (1.18, 1.48) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 3.3 (3.1, 3.5) | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 3.1 (2.8, 3.3) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 1.05 (0.96, 1.14) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 3.1 (2.8, 3.4) | 0.92 (0.86, 0.97) | 1.7 (1.5, 1.9) | 1.11 (0.99, 1.23) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 3.6 (3.3, 3.9) | 1.05 (0.98, 1.11) | 1.8 (1.6, 2.0) | 1.15 (1.02, 1.29) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 3.6 (3.4, 3.8) | 1.8 (1.6, 1.9) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 3.2 (3.0, 3.4) | 0.89 (0.86, 0.93) | 1.6 (1.5, 1.7) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 3.0 (2.7, 3.2) | 0.80 (0.76, 0.84) | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.97) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 2.8 (2.4, 3.1) | 0.79 (0.74, 0.85) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.6) | 0.83 (0.72, 0.94) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 2.6 (2.5, 2.8) | 1.3 (1.2, 1.4) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 3.5 (3.2, 3.7) | 1.42 (1.37, 1.48) | 1.8 (1.6, 1.9) | 1.32 (1.23, 1.42) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 4.0 (3.8, 4.2) | 1.81 (1.74, 1.88) | 1.9 (1.8, 2.0) | 1.47 (1.37, 1.58) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.12 (0.05, 0.26) | 0.01 (<0.01, 0.02) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.02, 0.10) | 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 61.4 | - |
N | % | Visited Preferred Green/Blue Space at Least Once a Week in Last 4 Weeks | Visit Green/Blue Spaces More Often Now than before COVID | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample | 2697 | 100 | 52.0 (49.6, 54.4) | 27.6 (25.5, 29.9) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 53.2 (49.7, 56.7) | 26.9 (23.8, 30.3) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 50.8 (47.4, 54.2) | 0.88 (0.74, 1.04) | 28.3 (25.4, 31.5) | 1.18 (0.97, 1.44) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 42.0 (32.0, 52.7) | 37.3 (27.7, 48.0) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 47.7 (41.4, 53.9) | 1.33 (0.78, 2.13) | 37.2 (31.4, 43.5) | 1.00 (0.59, 1.63) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 46.5 (40.9, 52.3) | 1.45 (0.84, 2.33) | 34.4 (29.2, 40.0) | 0.78 (0.45, 1.27) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 51.5 (46.1, 56.9) | 1.61 (0.93, 2.57) | 21.7 (17.7, 26.4) | 0.53 (0.30, 0.87) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 56.4 (51.5, 61.3) | 1.76 (1.02, 2.82) | 16.3 (13.1, 20.2) | 0.40 (0.22, 0.65) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 65.4 (60.5, 70.1) | 1.65 (0.89, 2.76) | 19.8 (16.1, 24.2) | 0.48 (0.24, 0.82) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 59.8 (52.2, 66.9) | 1.32 (0.66, 2.34) | 21.5 (15.9, 28.4) | 0.46 (0.21, 0.84) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 47.6 (43.0, 52.3) | 24.4 (20.4, 28.7) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 45.6 (38.7, 52.8) | 0.97 (0.71, 1.29) | 27.6 (21.5, 34.6) | 1.20 (0.84, 1.67) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 52.1 (43.4, 60.6) | 1.24 (0.87, 1.72) | 30.4 (23.2, 38.7) | 1.52 (1.02, 2.16) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 55.6 (49.1, 61.9) | 1.13 (0.85, 1.49) | 47.8 (41.4, 54.3) | 2.01 (1.46, 2.71) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 53.1 (44.0, 61.9) | 1.54 (1.06, 2.17) | 28.7 (20.9, 38.1) | 1.05 (0.67, 1.54) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 64.4 (60.2, 68.4) | 1.91 (1.35, 2.64) | 19.4 (16.3, 22.9) | 1.14 (0.74, 1.69) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 30.5 (19.0, 45.1) | 0.60 (0.33, 0.99) | 13.3 (7.1, 23.7) | 0.86 (0.39, 1.58) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 53.9 (47.9, 59.8) | 18.1 (14.0, 23.0) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 46.2 (39.8, 52.6) | 1.00 (0.70, 1.39) | 28.4 (22.6, 35.0) | 0.83 (0.54, 1.22) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 51.7 (47.5, 55.9) | 1.05 (0.78, 1.38) | 23.3 (19.8, 27.1) | 0.93 (0.65, 1.29) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 52.9 (48.1, 57.6) | 1.38 (1.02, 1.82) | 38.7 (34.2, 43.4) | 1.26 (0.90, 1.75) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 60.6 (54.4, 66.5) | 1.64 (1.16, 2.26) | 34.9 (29.2, 41.1) | 1.12 (0.75, 1.61) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 52.3 (47.8, 56.8) | 23.9 (20.1, 28.1) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 49.4 (45.1, 53.8) | 1.14 (0.89, 1.42) | 22.9 (19.3, 26.9) | 0.88 (0.66, 1.15) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 50.7 (45.0, 56.5) | 1.02 (0.75, 1.35) | 32.4 (27.2, 38.0) | 1.16 (0.81, 1.60) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 57.6 (51.6, 63.4) | 1.18 (0.84, 1.61) | 33.6 (28.2, 39.4) | 1.05 (0.71, 1.50) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 58.9 (54.4, 63.2) | 27.8 (23.9, 32.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 52.5 (48.7, 56.2) | 0.83 (0.68, 1.01) | 28.5 (25.2, 32.1) | 1.08 (0.85, 1.35) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 44.0 (38.5, 49.5) | 0.62 (0.47, 0.79) | 28.4 (23.5, 34.0) | 1.21 (0.88, 1.61) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 45.3 (37.5, 53.3) | 0.56 (0.39, 0.78) | 21.4 (15.2, 29.4) | 0.77 (0.49, 1.14) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 42.6 (39.0, 46.3) | 25.2 (22.0, 28.7) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 57.5 (52.9, 61.9) | 1.79 (1.47, 2.16) | 31.1 (27.0, 35.5) | 1.38 (1.10, 1.71) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 62.5 (57.9, 66.9) | 2.06 (1.67, 2.52) | 28.0 (23.9, 32.4) | 1.36 (1.06, 1.70) |
Random Effects Unadjusted mean (95% CrI) † | 0.06 (0.02, 0.16) | 0.46 (0.16, 1.13) | ||||
Adjusted mean (95% CrI) | 0.07 (0.02, 0.19) | 0.31 (0.10, 0.82) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | - | 30.8 |
N | % | Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces Have Helped Me to Stay Connected during the Pandemic | Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces Have Brought Me Solace and Respite in These Challenging Times | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample N | 2697 | 100 | 25.7 (23.7, 27.9) | 53.7 (51.3, 56.1) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 23.0 (20.2, 26.1) | 47.5 (44.0, 51.0) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 28.4 (25.5, 31.4) | 1.47 (1.21, 1.76) | 59.8 (56.4, 63.1) | 1.74 (1.45, 2.06) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 15.0 (9.0, 23.8) | 52.4 (41.8, 62.7) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 27.6 (22.3, 33.6) | 1.84 (0.95, 3.43) | 65.0 (58.8, 70.7) | 1.32 (0.77, 2.12) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 31.5 (26.3, 37.2) | 2.20 (1.13, 4.12) | 51.7 (45.9, 57.4) | 0.78 (0.46, 1.24) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 25.0 (20.6, 30.0) | 1.86 (0.97, 3.48) | 53.2 (47.7, 58.5) | 0.82 (0.48, 1.30) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 21.2 (17.6, 25.3) | 1.76 (0.90, 3.30) | 49.2 (44.3, 54.1) | 0.79 (0.46, 1.25) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 27.0 (22.7, 31.8) | 2.25 (1.08, 4.40) | 51.2 (46.0, 56.3) | 0.73 (0.39, 1.21) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 30.5 (24.1, 37.7) | 3.10 (1.37, 6.32) | 44.8 (37.6, 52.3) | 0.54 (0.27, 0.96) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 24.4 (20.5, 28.7) | 49.1 (44.4, 53.8) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 27.3 (21.2, 34.3) | 1.19 (0.84, 1.64) | 54.4 (47.2, 61.4) | 1.36 (0.99, 1.82) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 26.9 (20.1, 34.9) | 1.40 (0.95, 1.98) | 56.8 (48.0, 65.2) | 1.57 (1.08, 2.20) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 29.7 (24.2, 36.0) | 1.19 (0.86, 1.59) | 65.2 (58.8, 71.0) | 1.54 (1.13, 2.05) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 24.3 (17.4, 32.9) | 1.34 (0.87, 1.98) | 52.3 (43.3, 61.2) | 1.28 (0.88, 1.82) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 27.0 (23.5, 30.9) | 1.22 (0.83, 1.73) | 50.1 (45.9, 54.3) | 1.47 (1.05, 2.02) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 12.9 (7.0, 22.4) | 1.13 (0.54, 2.01) | 46.5 (32.6, 60.9) | 1.55 (0.86, 2.58) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 20.4 (16.2, 25.3) | 41.9 (36.2, 47.9) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 22.2 (17.5, 27.8) | 1.35 (0.90, 1.96) | 50.3 (43.9, 56.7) | 1.16 (0.82, 1.62) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 26.4 (22.8, 30.4) | 1.33 (0.95, 1.82) | 52.2 (48.0, 56.3) | 1.33 (0.99, 1.75) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 29.8 (25.7, 34.2) | 1.54 (1.10, 2.10) | 63.5 (58.9, 67.8) | 1.77 (1.32, 2.34) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 29.2 (23.9, 35.1) | 1.53 (1.04, 2.16) | 63.6 (57.5, 69.3) | 1.84 (1.31, 2.54) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 24.9 (21.2, 28.9) | 50.4 (45.9, 54.9) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 22.2 (18.9, 25.9) | 0.97 (0.75, 1.25) | 50.4 (46.0, 54.8) | 1.06 (0.83, 1.33) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 30.8 (25.7, 36.4) | 1.11 (0.79, 1.51) | 53.8 (48.0, 59.5) | 1.13 (0.83, 1.51) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 29.3 (24.0, 35.1) | 1.06 (0.73, 1.50) | 64.2 (58.3, 69.6) | 1.36 (0.95, 1.88) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 27.9 (24.1, 32.1) | 58.9 (54.5, 63.1) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 26.9 (23.8, 30.4) | 1.09 (0.87, 1.34) | 52.6 (48.9, 56.4) | 1.01 (0.81, 1.23) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 24.7 (20.3, 29.8) | 1.00 (0.75, 1.32) | 50.6 (44.9, 56.2) | 0.92 (0.70, 1.19) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 15.1 (10.4, 21.5) | 0.59 (0.37, 0.86) | 49.6 (41.6, 57.6) | 0.73 (0.50, 1.02) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 19.0 (16.3, 22.0) | 38.1 (34.5, 41.7) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 27.0 (23.3, 31.0) | 1.65 (1.32, 2.04) | 63.1 (58.7, 67.3) | 2.94 (2.40, 3.56) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 36.3 (31.9, 41.0) | 2.27 (1.79, 2.81) | 70.7 (66.5, 74.6) | 3.73 (3.01, 4.59) |
Random Effects Unadjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) † | 0.06 (0.01, 0.17) | 0.07 (0.02, 0.22) | ||||
Adjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) | 0.05 (0.01, 0.18) | 0.07 (0.01, 0.23) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 1.4 | 4.6 |
N | % | I Now Walk and/or Exercise in Green Spaces and/or Blue Spaces More Often than Before COVID | I Have Discovered and Visited Green/Blue Spaces That I Had Not Visited Before the Pandemic | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | % Yes (95% CI) | OR (95% CrI) | |||
Full sample N | 2697 | 100 | 28.2 (26.0, 30.5) | 27.1 (24.9, 29.5) | ||
Fixed Effects Gender (ref: Female) | 1217 | 45.1 | 27.1 (24.0, 30.4) | 25.2 (22.1, 28.6) | ||
Male | 1483 | 54.9 | 29.3 (26.2, 32.5) | 1.19 (0.98, 1.44) | 29.0 (25.9, 32.2) | 1.24 (1.02, 1.50) |
Age group (ref: 18–24) | 103 | 3.8 | 38.6 (28.9, 49.3) | 40.8 (30.9, 51.6) | ||
25–34 | 356 | 13.2 | 39.7 (33.7, 45.9) | 1.02 (0.58, 1.65) | 37.5 (31.6, 43.8) | 0.79 (0.47, 1.27) |
35–44 | 448 | 16.6 | 30.7 (25.7, 36.1) | 0.69 (0.39, 1.13) | 34.3 (29.1, 39.9) | 0.62 (0.36, 0.99) |
45–54 | 458 | 17.0 | 22.8 (18.7, 27.5) | 0.56 (0.32, 0.93) | 20.6 (16.6, 25.2) | 0.36 (0.21, 0.58) |
55–64 | 549 | 20.3 | 16.3 (13.0, 20.1) | 0.39 (0.22, 0.65) | 15.1 (12.0, 18.8) | 0.29 (0.17, 0.47) |
65–74 | 541 | 20.0 | 21.5 (17.6, 26.0) | 0.54 (0.28, 0.95) | 17.7 (14.1, 22.1) | 0.38 (0.20, 0.66) |
75+ | 245 | 9.1 | 25.0 (19.0, 32.2) | 0.56 (0.26, 1.03) | 17.4 (12.4, 23.7) | 0.40 (0.19, 0.74) |
Economic status (ref: Employed, not working from home) | 680 | 25.2 | 25.2 (21.3, 29.7) | 27.0 (22.9, 31.6) | ||
Employed, working from home sometimes | 285 | 10.6 | 28.0 (21.8, 35.1) | 1.11 (0.77, 1.52) | 29.8 (23.5, 36.9) | 1.26 (0.89, 1.72) |
Employed, working from home often | 201 | 7.4 | 33.9 (26.4, 42.4) | 1.61 (1.10, 2.27) | 29.4 (22.3, 37.8) | 1.32 (0.89, 1.89) |
Employed, working from home always | 380 | 14.1 | 43.5 (37.2, 50.0) | 1.66 (1.20, 2.22) | 41.4 (35.2, 48.0) | 1.43 (1.03, 1.92) |
Unemployed | 188 | 7.0 | 31.6 (23.7, 40.7) | 1.19 (0.78, 1.74) | 27.9 (19.9, 37.6) | 0.80 (0.50, 1.19) |
Retired | 787 | 29.2 | 20.7 (17.5, 24.3) | 1.07 (0.71, 1.55) | 16.1 (13.2, 19.4) | 0.84 (0.55, 1.26) |
Long-term sick or disabled | 73 | 2.7 | 14.1 (7.7, 24.3) | 1.01 (0.48, 1.80) | 15.4 (8.6, 26.0) | 1.16 (0.55, 2.11) |
Highest qualification (ref: <Year 12) | 345 | 12.8 | 22.0 (17.3, 27.4) | 16.3 (12.4, 21.2) | ||
Year 12 | 332 | 12.3 | 31.1 (25.3, 37.7) | 0.84 (0.56, 1.23) | 28.2 (22.5, 34.8) | 1.01 (0.66, 1.50) |
Certificate or advanced diploma | 744 | 27.6 | 22.7 (19.3, 26.6) | 0.77 (0.54, 1.08) | 23.3 (19.7, 27.3) | 1.01 (0.70, 1.42) |
Bachelor degree or graduate certificate | 859 | 31.8 | 36.8 (32.4, 41.4) | 1.15 (0.82, 1.60) | 36.1 (31.6, 40.8) | 1.27 (0.89, 1.77) |
Postgraduate qualification | 420 | 15.6 | 35.6 (29.8, 41.8) | 1.05 (0.71, 1.51) | 37.7 (31.7, 44.1) | 1.42 (0.96, 2.07) |
Annual household income before tax (AUD; ref: <AUD 50,000) | 776 | 28.7 | 26.1 (22.1, 30.4) | 21.7 (18.0, 25.8) | ||
AUD 51,000–AUD 100,000 | 842 | 31.2 | 24.6 (21.0, 28.6) | 1.01 (0.76, 1.30) | 22.0 (18.6, 25.9) | 1.09 (0.82, 1.43) |
AUD 101,000–AUD 150,000 | 468 | 17.3 | 30.3 (25.3, 35.9) | 1.13 (0.80, 1.57) | 33.1 (27.9, 38.8) | 1.33 (0.94, 1.86) |
>AUD 150,000 | 441 | 16.3 | 34.8 (29.3, 40.7) | 1.19 (0.81, 1.68) | 36.4 (30.7, 42.5) | 1.35 (0.91, 1.92) |
Financial situation (ref: Comfortable) | 825 | 30.6 | 29.3 (25.4, 33.5) | 26.7 (22.9, 31.0) | ||
Doing ok | 1156 | 42.8 | 28.7 (25.3, 32.3) | 1.06 (0.85, 1.32) | 28.5 (25.1, 32.1) | 1.10 (0.88, 1.38) |
Getting by | 491 | 18.2 | 24.9 (20.3, 30.1) | 1.00 (0.73, 1.32) | 26.9 (22.0, 32.4) | 1.14 (0.83, 1.53) |
Difficult or very difficult | 228 | 8.4 | 28.9 (21.8, 37.2) | 0.89 (0.59, 1.30) | 22.3 (15.9, 30.5) | 0.85 (0.54, 1.26) |
Nature relatedness scale (ref: Tertile 1 (1.0–3.4)) | 884 | 32.7 | 25.1 (22.0, 28.5) | 23.3 (20.2, 26.8) | ||
Tertile 2 (3.5–4.0) | 1082 | 40.1 | 32.2 (28.1, 36.7) | 1.40 (1.12, 1.73) | 28.2 (24.3, 32.5) | 1.46 (1.16, 1.82) |
Tertile 3 (4.1–5.0) | 734 | 27.2 | 28.9 (24.7, 33.5) | 1.33 (1.05, 1.67) | 32.7 (28.2, 37.5) | 1.65 (1.29, 2.07) |
Random Effects Unadjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) † | 0.40 (0.14, 0.98) | 0.34 (0.10, 0.90) | ||||
Adjusted random effect mean (95% CrI) | 0.29 (0.10, 0.75) | 0.21 (0.05, 0.63) | ||||
Percentage reduction in variance | 30.0 | 61.1 |
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Astell-Burt, T.; Feng, X. Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757
Astell-Burt T, Feng X. Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(5):2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757
Chicago/Turabian StyleAstell-Burt, Thomas, and Xiaoqi Feng. 2021. "Time for ‘Green’ during COVID-19? Inequities in Green and Blue Space Access, Visitation and Felt Benefits" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5: 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052757