Lead Emissions and Population Vulnerability in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, 2006–2013: Impact of Pollution, Housing Age and Neighborhood Racial Isolation and Poverty on Blood Lead in Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Childhood BLLs
2.3. Lead Emissions and Modeling
2.4. Modeled Lead Emissions and Recipient Individuals’ BLLs
2.5. Causal Mediator Interaction Models
3. Results
3.1. Study Area
3.2. Childhood BLLs
3.3. Lead Emissions and Modeling
3.4. Relationship between Industry Lead Emissions and BLLs
3.5. Causal Mediator Interaction Models
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Variables | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
Sex | ||||||||
Male = 0 | 29,722 (51.90) | 27,701 (52.10) | 24,726 (51.80) | 24,101 (51.50) | 22,426 (51.40) | 22,544 (51.50) | 22,739 (51.90) | 25,759 (51.40) |
Female = 1 | 27,507 (48.10) | 25,430 (47.90) | 23,022 (48.20) | 22,664 (48.50) | 21,169 (48.60) | 21,201 (48.50) | 21,039 (48.10) | 24,362 (48.60) |
Total/Mean/Std Dev | 57,229/0.48/0.50 | 53,131/0.48/0.50 | 47,748/0.48/0.50 | 46,765/0.48/0.50 | 43,595/0.49/0.50 | 43,745/0.48/0.60 | 43,778/0.48/0.50 | 50,121/0.49/0.50 |
Age in Years | ||||||||
0–2 | 14,419 (25.20) | 16,066 (30.23) | 16,866 (35.32) | 18,800 (40.20) | 19,025 (43.64) | 21,500 (49.15) | 22,662 (51.77) | 27,615 (55.10) |
2.1–6 | 33,600 (58.71) | 28,375 (53.41) | 23,803 (49.85) | 22,000 (47.04) | 19,734 (45.27) | 18,365 (41.98) | 18,045 (41.22) | 19,888 (39.68) |
>6 to 16 | 9210 (16.09) | 8690 (16.36) | 7079 (14.83) | 5965 (12.76) | 4836 (11.09) | 3880 (8.87) | 3071 (7.01) | 2618 (5.22) |
Total/Mean/Std Dev | 57,229/4.04/2.85 | 53,131/3.87/2.91 | 47,748/3.65/2.97 | 46,765/3.37/2.88 | 43,595/3.19/2.81 | 43,745/2.91/2.69 | 43,778/2.71/2.53 | 50,121/2.48/2.23 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||
Non-Hispanic Black = 1 | 26,090 (45.60) | 21,452 (40.40) | 16,769 (35.10) | 15,939 (34.10) | 15,455 (35.50) | 15,229 (34.80) | 15,694 (35.80) | 18,283 (36.50) |
Non-Hispanic White = 2 | 17,358 (30.30) | 18,181 (6.60) | 18,921 (39.60) | 19,261 (41.20) | 18,131 (41.60) | 18,179 (41.60) | 17,684 (40.40) | 20,299 (40.50) |
Hispanic = 3 | 4030 (7.00) | 3500 (6.60) | 2875 (6.00) | 2530 (5.40) | 2353 (5.40) | 2386 (5.50) | 2487 (5.70) | 2741 (5.50) |
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander = 4 | 64 (0.10) | 57 (0.10) | 60 (0.20) | 67 (0.10) | 97 (0.20) | 144 (0.30) | 150 (0.30) | 285 (0.50) |
Asian = 5 | 605 (1.10) | 693 (1.30) | 765 (1.60) | 824 (1.80) | 813 (1.80) | 959 (2.20) | 904 (2.10) | 1162 (2.30) |
Arab = 6 | 153 (0.30) | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported | No Longer Reported |
American Indian or Native Alaskan = 7 | 28 (0.00) | 143 (0.30) | 159 (0.40) | 184 (0.40) | 186 (0.40) | 138 (0.30) | 136 (0.30) | 180 (0.40) |
Mixed Race = 8 | 28 (0.00) | 19 (0.00) | 16 (0.00) | 11 (0.00) | 35 (0.10) | 28 (0.10) | 43 (0.10) | 54 (0.10) |
No Report = 9 | 8901 (15.60) | 9086 (17.10) | 8183 (17.10) | 7949 (17.00) | 6525 (15.00) | 6682 (15.20) | 6680 (15.3) | 7117 (14.20) |
Total | 57,229 | 53,131 | 47,748 | 46,765 | 43,595 | 43,745 | 43,778 | 50,121 |
BLL µg/dL Cases | 57,229 (100.00) | 53,131 (100.00) | 47,748 (100.00) | 46,765 (100) | 43,595 (100) | 43,745 (100) | 43,778 (100) | 50,121 (100) |
† Mean/Stan Dev | 3.05/2.98 | 2.78/2.69 | 2.50/2.75 | 2.43/2.59 | 2.28/2.54 | 2.15/2.18 | 2.00/2.05 | 2.00/2.09 |
% ≥5 µg/dL | 17.38 | 14.22 | 10.67 | 9.21 | 7.42 | 5.65 | 5.21 | 4.37 |
Blood Collection Method | ||||||||
Capillary = 0 | 9886 (17.30) | 8389 (15.80) | 9225 (19.30) | 10,727 (22.90) | 10,642 (24.40) | 12,225 (27.90) | 13,474 (30.80) | 18,678 (37.30) |
Intravenous = 1 | 47,343 (82.70) | 44,742 (84.20) | 38,523 (80.70) | 36,038 (77.10) | 32,953 (75.60) | 31,520 (72.10) | 30,304 (69.20) | 31,443 (62.70) |
Total/Mean/Std Dev | 57,229/0.83/0.38 | 53,131/0.84/0.37 | 47,748/0.81/0.40 | 46,765/0.77/0.42 | 43,595/0.75/0.43 | 43,745/0.72/0.45 | 43,778/0.69/0.46 | 50,121/0.63/0.48 |
1.0 µg/dL Reports | 16,365 (28.60) | 18,199 (34.25) | 20,029 (41.95) | 17,776 (38.01) | 18,555 (42.56) | 18,130 (41.44) | 23,885 (54.56) | 26.507 (52.89) |
Insurance Coverage Type | ||||||||
Non-Medicaid = 0 | 12,867 (22.50) | 14,341 (27.00) | 14,585 (30.50) | 14,120 (30.20) | 10,642 (24.40) | 12,951 (29.60) | 12,119 (27.70) | 13,559 (27.10) |
Medicaid = 1 | 44,362 (77.50) | 38,790 (73.00) | 33,163 (69.50) | 32,645 (69.80) | 32,953 (75.60) | 30,794 (70.40) | 31,659 (72.30) | 36,562 (72.90) |
Total/Mean/Std Dev | 57,229/0.78/0.42 | 53,131/0.73/0.44 | 47,748/0.69/0.46 | 46,765/0.70/0.46 | 43,595/0.71/0.45 | 43,745/0.70/0.46 | 43,778/0.72/0.45 | 50,121/0.74/0.44 |
Total Pounds Lead Emitted | ||||||||
Wayne County (Detroit) | 1483 (68.03) | 1809 (69.95) | 1559 (46.89) | 1051 (59.28) | 981 (88.62) | 930 (93.28) | 1242 (98.26) | 1431 (99.17) |
Macomb County | 55 (2.52) | 87 (3.36) | 38 (1.14) | 30 (1.69) | 9 (0.81) | 15 (1.50) | 6 (0.47) | 1 (0.07) |
Oakland County | 642 (29.45) | 690 (26.68) | 1728 (51.97) | 692 (39.03) | 117 (10.57) | 52 (5.22) | 16 (1.27) | 11 (0.76) |
Total: | 2180 | 2586 | 3325 | 1773 | 1107 | 997 | 1264 | 1443 |
Mean Modeled Total Lead | ||||||||
Deposition, DMA (µg/m2) | 0.00225 | 0.001164 | 0.00134 | 0.000867 | 0.001237 | 0.001197 | 0.001966 | 0.002113 |
Mean Modeled Airborne | ||||||||
Emissions, DMA (µg/m3) | 0.000994 | 0.000244 | 0.000324 | 0.000145 | 0.000296 | 0.000206 | 0.000378 | 0.000507 |
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Modeled Total Lead Deposition (Wet plus Dry) (µg/m2) | 0.022 n = 57,229 | 0.047 n = 53,131 | 0.087 n = 47,748 | 0.047 n = 46,765 | 0.139 n = 43,595 | 0.059 n = 43,745 | 0.037 n = 43,778 | 0.046 n = 50,121 |
Modeled Airborne Lead Emissions (µg/m3) | 0.048 n = 57,229 | 0.059 n = 53,131 | 0.092 n = 47,748 | 0.080 n = 46,765 | 0.115 n = 43,595 | 0.067 n = 43,745 | 0.066 n = 43,778 | 0.062 n = 50,121 |
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Modeled Total Lead Deposition (Wet plus Dry) (µg/m2) | 24.82 n = 57,229 | 41.853 n = 53,131 | 59.698 n = 47,748 | 23.472 n = 46,765 | 132.029 n = 43,595 | 54.003 n = 43,745 | 24.507 n = 43,778 | 43.982 n = 50,121 |
Modeled Airborne Lead Emissions (µg/m3) | 258.727 n = 57,229 | 236.26 n = 53,131 | 361.895 n = 47,748 | 354.539 n = 46,765 | 564.149 n = 43,595 | 306.202 n = 43,745 | 291.275 n = 43,778 | 293.662 n = 50,121 |
Interaction Term | ||||||||
Total Deposition | 60.764 | 74.576 | 77.015 | 77.504 | 144.503 | 80.85 | 44.937 | 69.053 |
Lead * Housing | −0.024 | −0.026 | −0.013 | −0.015 | −0.017 | −0.014 | −0.014 | −0.010 |
Gender | −0.027 | −0.024 | −0.016 | −0.007 | −0.008 | −0.006 | −0.007 | −0.007 |
Race/Ethnicity | n = 57,181 | n = 53,067 | n = 47,691 | n = 46,719 | n = 43,545 | n = 43,676 | n = 43,733 | n = 50,063 |
Interaction Term | ||||||||
Airborne Lead * | 392.084 | 328.556 | 423.139 | 435.933 | 577.506 | 314.628 | 383.016 | 384.383 |
Housing | −0.024 | −0.026 | −0.013 | −0.015 | −0.017 | −0.014 | −0.014 | −0.010 |
Gender | −0.027 | −0.024 | −0.016 | −0.007 | −0.008 | −0.005 | −0.007 | −0.007 |
Race/Ethnicity | n = 57,181 | n = 53,067 | n = 47,691 | n = 46,719 | n = 43,545 | n = 43,676 | n = 43,733 | n = 50,063 |
Average Depositional Lead | Average Airborne Lead Concentration | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β 1 | 95% LCI, UCI | β | 95% LCI, UCI | |||
2008 | ||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.21 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.15 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.12 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 54.42 | 50.34 | 58.50 | 56.55 | 52.28 | 60.82 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 28.20 | 26.15 | 31.84 | 25.38 | 22.14 | 28.61 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | 25.42 | 22.30 | 28.55 | 31.17 | 27.41 | 34.93 |
2010 | ||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.21 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.16 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.12 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.09 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 44.37 | 40.72 | 48.01 | 43.97 | 40.50 | 47.43 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 18.90 | 16.13 | 21.67 | 17.58 | 14.57 | 20.60 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | 25.47 | 22.30 | 28.63 | 26.38 | 23.01 | 29.76 |
2011 | ||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.13 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.11 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.00 (ns) | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 2.77 (ns) | −2.74 | 8.29 | 16.37 | 11.98 | 20.76 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 5.72 (ns) | 1.19 | 10.25 | 8.97 | 4.43 | 13.50 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | −2.95 (ns) | −6.31 | 0.42 | 7.41 | 4.14 | 10.68 |
Average Lead Deposition | Average Airborne Lead Concentration | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β 1 | 95% LCI, UCI | β | 95% LCI, UCI | β | 95% LCI, UCI | β | 95% LCI, UCI | |||||
2008 | Black Children | White Children | Black Children | White Children | ||||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.23 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.12 | 0.15 | 0.18 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.14 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 61.02 | 55.70 | 66.33 | 56.35 | 51.75 | 60.94 | 83.41 | 75.58 | 91.23 | 77.89 | 70.95 | 84.83 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 25.54 | 22.59 | 28.49 | 31.24 | 27.97 | 34.51 | 30.81 | 26.77 | 34.86 | 35.39 | 31.10 | 39.68 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | 23.47 | 19.54 | 27.40 | 29.32 | 25.76 | 32.88 | 42.25 | 35.84 | 48.66 | 46.07 | 40.14 | 51.99 |
2010 | Black Children | White Children | Black Children | White Children | ||||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.176 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.12 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.124 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.14 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.079 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.097 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.11 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 49.38 | 44.94 | 53.81 | 50.61 | 45.99 | 55.23 | 55.28 | 50.58 | 59.97 | 53.70 | 49.26 | 58.15 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 23.64 | 20.35 | 26.93 | 21.74 | 18.63 | 24.85 | 21.21 | 17.79 | 24.62 | 23.45 | 19.80 | 27.10 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | 29.31 | 25.52 | 33.11 | 27.54 | 23.61 | 31.48 | 29.69 | 25.20 | 34.20 | 31.70 | 27.45 | 35.94 |
2011 | Black Children | White Children | Black Children | White Children | ||||||||
Total (Direct + Indirect) Effect (TE) | 0.10 | 0.088 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.13 |
Controlled Direct Effect (CDE) | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.12 |
Natural Direct Effect (NDE) | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.09 |
Natural Indirect Effect (NIE) | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
Percentage Mediated (PM) | 12.00 | 5.61 | 18.39 | 11.95 | 5.61 | 18.30 | 31.36 | 25.92 | 36.80 | 30.22 | 25.22 | 35.23 |
Percentage Due to Interaction (PAI) | 9.44 | 4.23 | 14.65 | 9.79 | 4.41 | 15.18 | 13.69 | 9.16 | 18.23 | 16.82 | 11.47 | 22.18 |
Percentage Eliminated (PE) | 1.97 | −2.30 | 6.24 | 2.36 | −1.87 | 6.57 | 11.95 | 7.09 | 16.81 | 15.14 | 10.95 | 19.33 |
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Moody, H.A.; Grady, S.C. Lead Emissions and Population Vulnerability in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, 2006–2013: Impact of Pollution, Housing Age and Neighborhood Racial Isolation and Poverty on Blood Lead in Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2747. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052747
Moody HA, Grady SC. Lead Emissions and Population Vulnerability in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, 2006–2013: Impact of Pollution, Housing Age and Neighborhood Racial Isolation and Poverty on Blood Lead in Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(5):2747. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052747
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoody, Heather A., and Sue C. Grady. 2021. "Lead Emissions and Population Vulnerability in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, 2006–2013: Impact of Pollution, Housing Age and Neighborhood Racial Isolation and Poverty on Blood Lead in Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5: 2747. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052747