1. Background
Parenting a child with neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) can be challenging [
1,
2]. In some parts of the world this challenge can be further exacerbated by poverty and lack of support from the surroundings [
3]. NDD is a term used for a range of disorders that involve injuries to the developing brain, such as cerebral palsy and genetic disorders, and also intellectual disability and other conditions that lead to functional limitations such as impaired cognition, motor performance, vision, hearing, and speech, and behavior problems [
4,
5]. There is a lack of epidemiological data on NDD prevalence in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) [
6], but it is estimated that between 93 and 150 million children suffer from some kind of disability, and most of these live in low-income countries [
7,
8]. Children with disabilities are often not represented in official statistics and as a result remain politically and socially “invisible” [
9]. Overall, NDD conditions are likely to be more common in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) because of the higher prevalence of recognized risk factors such as poor maternal and child healthcare in the prenatal and postnatal period, nutritional deficiencies, and neonatal infections [
6].
NDD is a public health challenge for LMIC [
10] on account of their high prevalence, lifetime duration, and considerable social, personal, and economic consequences, as well as the impact on educational and employment opportunities in later life. Treatment, prevention, and management of these conditions are often not considered in healthcare plans, although they place a heavy burden on healthcare systems [
11].
There is a growing understanding of the impact of NDD on the quality of life and mental health of families with children with these conditions. However, the majority of research has been conducted in high-income countries, and there is a lack of knowledge on the situation in low- and middle-income countries [
12]. Research from high-income countries has shown substantially increased stress [
1,
2,
13,
14], chronicity of distress [
15], fatigue [
2], higher rate of anxiety and depression [
12,
16], emotional and cognitive problems [
17], and a greater likelihood of having physical illness [
17,
18] for these caregivers. They also forfeit employment opportunities, leisure time, and social interactions and often become housebound [
2].
Moreover, there are also substantial economic challenges in having a child with a disability [
19]. In LMIC with little or no governmental support, this is believed to be an even greater problem and can make caregivers impoverished and indebted [
20].
Caregiving experiences in different contexts may also differ, as there are many additional challenges in raising a child with NDD in LMIC [
3,
21]. Social isolation and psychological distress can be further exacerbated by stigma, exclusion, and inequitable policies [
2].
The presence of psychiatric distress in the caregiver is associated with reports of poorer social support, family dysfunction, greater adverse impact of the child’s situation on the family, poorer child behavior, unfavorable parenting styles, poorer child psychosocial functioning [
22], and even a negative impact on siblings and marriage [
23]. Maternal depression has been shown to affect the child’s psychological, intellectual, and psychosocial development, and may increase the risk of malnourishment and physical as well as psychiatric illness in the child [
4]. The resources, family support, and overall functioning of the family are important factors for achieving a satisfying life for children with disabilities [
24]. It is therefore important to gain more knowledge about the psychological distress of these parents in LMIC.
According to Thrush and Hyder, the lack of information, especially quantitative data, on the situation of caregivers and their burden in LMIC allows the perpetuation of the misleading notion that families in LMIC are capable of providing care without public or private institutional support [
3], and better evidence would provide incentive for governments of LMIC to put the needs of caregivers higher on their agenda.
Some studies have shown that caregivers in low-income countries seem to have a higher risk of suffering from some form of psychiatric morbidity [
25,
26,
27,
28,
29]. Disability in the child may have a large impact on the lives, economy, and mental health of caregivers in LMIC [
20]. Young people with disabilities in LMIC are less likely to ever enroll school, have limited access to both education and health services, and are at increased risk of isolation, social exclusion, experiencing physical violence, and sexual and emotional abuse [
30]. However, much of the research in LMIC settings seems to have been done on convenience samples, often in a major city or on caregivers attending a cerebral palsy (CP) center or in others already receiving help.
Studies of caregivers of patients with mental disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Nepal have shown a high level of stress-, depression-, and anxiety-related problems [
31,
32]. A study from a hospital in the city of Dhahran found that caretakers of intellectually disabled children in the hospital had a high level of anxiety and depression [
33]. There seems to be a lack of knowledge of the caregiver situation especially in rural areas. To our knowledge, no studies on the psychological distress of NDD children’s caregivers have been published from rural Nepal. We have chosen to focus on the situation in rural areas, where most of the population in Nepal lives and where children with disabilities often receive no or very limited help.
Nepal has a difficult geography and infrastructure, and accessibility to roads is limited in many parts of the country. Eighty percent of the population lives in rural areas, and 40% of women are illiterate. It is among the poorest countries in the world, with about a quarter of its population living below the poverty line [
34]. Studies have shown that the prevalence of mental illness such as depression in Nepal is similar to the prevalence in the developed world [
35,
36].
Cultural understanding, attitudes, and concepts of both mental health and disability differ and have an effect on stress, coping [
37], and help-seeking behavior [
38], and can thereby lead to ineffective treatment. Clarke and colleagues found that Nepali mothers’ concepts of psychological distress were often attributed to family- and gender-related factors. The distress often developed in a context of perceived duty towards the family and limited autonomy for women, and the response to distress was often shaped by a fatalistic worldview [
39]. A report by Human Rights Watch found that families with disabilities are stigmatized and there is a strong belief in Nepal that disability is due to sins in a past life, fate, and God’s will. They also found that these beliefs often prevent caregivers from accessing appropriate education or healthcare for their disabled child because of shame, stigma, and an inability to see the possible benefit [
40].
Resources for both disability and mental healthcare in Nepal are very limited, and there is a major lack of trained manpower, service centers, and integration of mental health into primary healthcare [
41,
42,
43].
Aim of the Study
The aim of this study was to estimate the psychological distress of caregivers with children suffering from NDD in rural Nepal and to find the factors associated with psychological distress.
4. Discussion
In the current study, 90.5% of the caregivers scored above the suggested cutoff (≥2) on the GHQ-12. This is much higher than 11.7% found in the general female population in a rural district of Nepal [
49]. Almost half of the caregivers (46%) scored six or higher, which is the optimum cutoff found by Patel and colleagues to use in very resource-poor settings to best balance between sensitivity and positive predictive value [
55]. In contrast, about 10 % of mothers in a large study in a rural district of Nepal scored six or higher [
39]. This indicates a higher psychological distress in caregivers of NDD children compared with what was previously reported in the general Nepali rural female population. The finding of a high level of distress in caregivers of NDD children is in line with previous studies of caregivers of children with intellectual disability [
33] in Nepal and other studies of children with disabilities in an LMIC setting like India [
28], Bangladesh [
25], and Sri Lanka [
29].
The correlation between child impact on caregiver, the GMFCS score, and psychological distress measured by the GHQ-12 demonstrates that the child’s disability seems to put a large overall burden on the caregivers and their families. This is in line with research that has shown that there is a considerable and neglected burden on caregivers in LMIC’s in terms of physical, psychological, social, time, and financial burden [
3], and that the extra care burden related to having a disabled child can have a negative impact also on healthy siblings and marriage [
23].
Previous findings have indicated that interventions and preventive strategies targeting caregivers may enable the caregivers to be more responsive to the child’s needs, thus decreasing the impact of the child’s disability on the caregivers [
57], which can improve the wellbeing and the situation of the caregivers [
58]. It is reasonable to expect similar results in a low-income setting. It is therefore important to address the situation of the whole family and not just the disabled child. Holistic interventions addressing the total family burden and the caregiver’s psychological health therefore seem important.
We found that psychological distress was strongly related to the severity of the child’s motor disability as measured by the GMFCS and to perceived caregiver impact. Some of this might be caused by increased workload related to having a severely disabled child. Interventions that can reduce workload may be useful to reduce caregiver’s stress. Lack of mobility aids, often combined with inaccessible roads, can be a challenge resulting in both the disabled child and the caregiver becoming housebound. Simple, affordable mobility aids have been used with success in several developing countries [
59].
Likewise, feeding problems were associated with psychological distress in the caregiver, and a study from Bangladesh has shown that an intervention to improve the child’s feeding skills reduced maternal stress [
60].
There was no correlation between the number of help sources and psychological distress. The only help source that was significantly correlated with lower psychological distress was advice and help from health workers, indicating that health workers might have an important role in reducing stress in caregivers. Having a close friend or relative to confide in was also significantly correlated to lower psychological distress as measured by the GHQ-12. This is in line with a review of Ribeiro (2013) that found that social support reduces stress levels in CP families [
61]. Increasing social support might also therefore be important in order to improve the situation of these families. Community-based parent support groups have provided informal peer support as well as help and advice from health personnel [
60,
62].
Although one could assume that living in an extended family would provide more help for the caregivers, there was no association between psychological distress and family type. This has also been found in studies from Bangladesh [
25] and Sri Lanka [
29]. The finding of a high stress level in the present study can also be related to a strong feeling of duty towards the family [
39], combined with a belief that disability is the result of sinful past actions [
63] and the fate of god [
40]. In addition, the whole family, but especially mothers of disabled children, is often stigmatized [
40]. This might also hamper help-seeking behavior both for the disabled child and for the caregiver.
Having a disabled child can be an economic challenge to the family because the caregiver often becomes housebound and has less possibilities for work outside the home [
2,
19]. In a setting with little or no governmental support, this may be an even greater problem, leading to increased poverty and debt [
20]. The loss of income together with added expenses can have a detrimental effect on caregivers and their families in LMIC [
3]. The correlation between disability and poverty is strong: poverty leads to higher rates of disability, and disability increases the risk of poverty [
8].
Seventy percent reported that the child’s disability had either negative (32%) or very negative impact (38%) on their economy, indicating a substantial economic burden of having a disabled child.
The finding that illiterate caregivers have higher psychological distress is in line with a study from Nigeria that showed that the most important predictors of a caregiver’s stress were severity of disability and level of education [
64]. Brehaut and colleagues found that caregivers of disabled children had lower academic attainment, limited work opportunities, were more likely to be unemployed, and had lower income levels [
17].
The forward regression analysis entering the significant factors from the correlational analysis indicated that caregiver burden, having a friend to confide in, and receiving help from health workers predicted psychological distress (GHQ12), after controlling for the effect of the other significant correlations. The factor that explained most of the variance was caregiver burden. This may indicate that measures to decrease caregiver burden are central to reduce psychological distress, as well as providing both informal psychosocial support and professional help. More studies are needed to understand the factors associated with caregiver’s psychological distress, as well as how to best introduce measures to reduce psychological distress among NDD caregivers in LMIC countries and in different cultural settings.
4.1. Strengths and Limitations
In Nepal, 80% of the population reside in rural areas. Caregivers living here may have different challenges to caregivers living in a major city. It is therefore a strength that this study was performed in a rural setting and mainly among families who were not already enrolled in a program for NDD. Although case findings, infrastructure, and transportation can be a major challenge, generating knowledge about childhood disability and the caregiver’s situation in rural areas in LMIC is important in order to be able to develop better services for this group.
The use of experienced mental health professionals as interviewers and ensuring privacy in the interview setting are strengths of this study. Obtaining valid answers to personal questions, including questions regarding mental health issues, in a context where this is highly stigmatized and little spoken about, requires the interviewers to quickly build rapport and trust with the interviewee and be able to probe further when necessary.
The study has a number of limitations. The sample size is small, and statistical interpretation should be made with caution. Even though the sample was collected from different districts, Nepal is a very ethnically and culturally diverse country and the results may not be representative of the situation for NDD caregivers in rural Nepal. As there is no public register of children with NDD, information about possible children with NDD in the area was gathered from local people, youth clubs, local authorities, and other organizations, and cases might have been missed out. No participants refused to participate in the study. However some families may not have wanted to disclose that they have a disabled child. This may be a bias as such children would not be included in the study.
4.2. Implications and Recommendations
The caregiver’s situation is often difficult, with a high burden of caregiving severely affecting mental health and quality of life. Lack of services for both disability and mental health seems to be adding to the burden of these caregivers. For most of the caregivers, there seemed to be no available mental health services locally. We suggest that interventions for this group will be more effective if they also involve a specialized and direct focus on caregiver’s mental health and coping. Sensitive care and support of the caregivers should be included in the follow-up of disabled children, and the caregivers could be screened with simple tools such as the GHQ-12 for more serious psychological distress. Decreasing caregiver burden and ensuring informal psychosocial support as well as support from health workers may be of importance to reduce psychological distress.