Differential Effects of Multiple Dimensions of Poverty on Child Behavioral Problems: Results from the A-CHILD Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Samples
2.2. Low Income and Material Deprivation
2.3. Child Behavioral Problems
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Prevalence of Multidimensional Poverty
4.2. Direct Effects of Life-Related and Child-Related Deprivation
4.3. Mediating Effects of Parental Psychological Distress and Social Support
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total | 2015 | 2017 | 2019 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 12,367) | (n = 4219) | (n = 4168) | (n = 3980) | ||||||
Mean/N | S.D./% | Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | ||
Child age | (Months old) | 84.7 | 3.5 | 85.2 | 3.56 | 84.5 | 3.42 | 84.4 | 3.52 |
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
Child sex | Female | 6073 | 49.1% | 2048 | 48.5% | 2055 | 49.3% | 1970 | 49.5% |
Male | 6286 | 50.8% | 2166 | 51.3% | 2110 | 50.6% | 2010 | 50.5% | |
Missing | 8 | 0.1% | 5 | 0.1% | 3 | 0.1% | 0 | 0.0% | |
Number of parents living at home | Two parents | 11,144 | 90.1% | 3785 | 89.7% | 3765 | 90.3% | 3594 | 90.3% |
One parent | 1114 | 9.0% | 393 | 9.3% | 370 | 8.9% | 351 | 8.8% | |
No parents | 109 | 0.9% | 41 | 1.0% | 33 | 0.8% | 35 | 0.9% | |
Missing | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | |
Number of grandparents living at home | No grandparents | 11,127 | 90.0% | 3765 | 89.2% | 3758 | 90.2% | 3604 | 90.6% |
One grandparent | 677 | 5.5% | 265 | 6.3% | 227 | 5.4% | 185 | 4.6% | |
Two+ grandparents | 563 | 4.6% | 189 | 4.5% | 183 | 4.4% | 191 | 4.8% | |
Missing | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | |
Number of children in the household | One child | 2539 | 20.5% | 871 | 20.6% | 854 | 20.5% | 814 | 20.5% |
Two children | 6351 | 51.4% | 2167 | 51.4% | 2107 | 50.6% | 2077 | 52.2% | |
Three children | 2797 | 22.6% | 948 | 22.5% | 974 | 23.4% | 875 | 22.0% | |
Four+ | 676 | 5.5% | 229 | 5.4% | 233 | 5.6% | 214 | 5.4% | |
Missing | 4 | 0.0% | 4 | 0.1% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | |
Maternal age | <30 | 661 | 5.3% | 218 | 5.2% | 244 | 5.9% | 199 | 5.0% |
30–34 | 2231 | 18.0% | 756 | 17.9% | 753 | 18.1% | 722 | 18.1% | |
35–39 | 4104 | 33.2% | 1444 | 34.2% | 1372 | 32.9% | 1288 | 32.4% | |
40–44 | 3765 | 30.4% | 1301 | 30.8% | 1277 | 30.6% | 1187 | 29.8% | |
45+ | 1314 | 10.6% | 411 | 9.7% | 425 | 10.2% | 478 | 12.0% | |
Missing | 292 | 2.4% | 89 | 2.1% | 97 | 2.3% | 106 | 2.7% | |
Maternal education | High school | 4064 | 32.9% | 1507 | 35.7% | 1361 | 32.7% | 1196 | 30.1% |
Technical school/junior college | 4922 | 39.8% | 1750 | 41.5% | 1673 | 40.1% | 1499 | 37.7% | |
University | 3017 | 24.4% | 862 | 20.4% | 999 | 24.0% | 1156 | 29.0% | |
Other/unknown | 364 | 2.9% | 100 | 2.4% | 135 | 3.2% | 129 | 3.2% | |
Maternal employment | Yes | 8592 | 69.5% | 2766 | 65.6% | 2884 | 69.2% | 2942 | 73.9% |
No | 3775 | 30.5% | 1453 | 34.4% | 1284 | 30.8% | 1038 | 26.1% | |
Missing | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | |
Maternal mental condition | K6: <5 | 8522 | 68.9% | 2,998 | 71.1% | 2872 | 68.9% | 2652 | 66.6% |
K6: 5+ | 3794 | 30.7% | 1204 | 28.5% | 1284 | 30.8% | 1306 | 32.8% | |
Missing | 51 | 0.4% | 17 | 0.4% | 12 | 0.3% | 22 | 0.6% | |
Number of consulting sources | None | 1174 | 9.5% | 474 | 11.2% | 350 | 8.4% | 350 | 8.8% |
One to two | 7848 | 63.5% | 2,565 | 60.8% | 2704 | 64.9% | 2579 | 64.8% | |
Three to four | 2964 | 24.0% | 1022 | 24.2% | 993 | 23.8% | 949 | 23.8% | |
Five+ | 371 | 3.0% | 148 | 3.5% | 121 | 2.9% | 102 | 2.6% | |
Outcome variable | Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | |
SDQ total | (Range: 0–40) | 10.3 | 5.41 | 9.93 | 5.31 | 10.4 | 5.42 | 10.5 | 5.46 |
SDQ-prosocial | (Range: 0–10) | 6.65 | 2.07 | 6.61 | 2.04 | 6.69 | 2.06 | 6.66 | 2.09 |
N | % | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Income | ≥3,000,000 yen | 9582 | 77.5% | |
<3,000,000 yen | 1210 | 9.78% | ||
No response | 1575 | 12.7% | ||
Child-related deprivation | Material hardship | Books | 217 | 1.75% |
Toys | 143 | 1.16% | ||
Place to study | 364 | 2.94% | ||
Payment difficulty | Trips | 78 | 0.63% | |
Excursions | 36 | 0.29% | ||
School lunch | 162 | 1.31% | ||
Any child-related deprivation | 672 | 5.43% | ||
Life-related deprivation | Material hardship | Washing machine | 31 | 0.25% |
Cooking appliances | 27 | 0.22% | ||
Cleaning appliances | 33 | 0.27% | ||
Heating | 54 | 0.44% | ||
Air conditioning | 54 | 0.44% | ||
Oven | 41 | 0.33% | ||
Phone | 147 | 1.19% | ||
Bath | 34 | 0.27% | ||
Bed | 315 | 2.55% | ||
Savings | 1304 | 10.5% | ||
Payment difficulty | Rent | 197 | 1.59% | |
Mortgage | 81 | 0.65% | ||
Electricity | 218 | 1.76% | ||
Gas | 194 | 1.57% | ||
Water | 189 | 1.53% | ||
Phone | 207 | 1.67% | ||
Premiums | 704 | 5.69% | ||
Transportation | 45 | 0.36% | ||
Any life-related deprivation | 1904 | 15.2% | ||
Combinations of dimensions of poverty | ||||
None of the three dimensions of poverty | 8385 | 67.8% | ||
Low income and child-related deprivation | 53 | 0.43% | ||
Low income and life-related deprivation | 340 | 2.75% | ||
Child-related and life-related deprivation | 244 | 1.97% | ||
All three dimensions of poverty | 177 | 1.43% |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | S.E. | p-Value | Coef | S.E. | p-Value | Coef | S.E. | p-Value | ||
Child sex (ref: female) | Male | 0.238 | 0.017 | <0.001 | 0.236 | 0.017 | <0.001 | 0.237 | 0.017 | <0.001 |
Child age | (Months) | −0.028 | 0.002 | <0.001 | −0.028 | 0.002 | <0.001 | −0.028 | 0.002 | <0.001 |
Number of parents living at home (ref: two parents) | One parent | 0.033 | 0.037 | 0.374 | 0.020 | 0.037 | 0.590 | 0.017 | 0.037 | 0.647 |
None, other | 0.365 | 0.109 | 0.001 | 0.353 | 0.109 | 0.001 | 0.361 | 0.109 | 0.001 | |
Number of grandparents living at home (ref: none) | One grandparent | 0.107 | 0.039 | 0.006 | 0.109 | 0.039 | 0.005 | 0.107 | 0.039 | 0.006 |
Two+ grandparents | 0.043 | 0.043 | 0.319 | 0.048 | 0.043 | 0.259 | 0.046 | 0.043 | 0.283 | |
Number of children in the household (ref: one child) | Two children | −0.189 | 0.023 | <0.001 | −0.188 | 0.023 | <0.001 | −0.190 | 0.023 | <0.001 |
Three children | −0.259 | 0.027 | <0.001 | −0.265 | 0.027 | <0.001 | −0.274 | 0.027 | <0.001 | |
Four+ children | −0.232 | 0.042 | <0.001 | −0.256 | 0.042 | <0.001 | −0.274 | 0.043 | <0.001 | |
Maternal age | 30–34 (years old) | −0.088 | 0.043 | 0.040 | −0.085 | 0.043 | 0.046 | −0.073 | 0.043 | 0.088 |
(ref: age < 30) | 35–39 | −0.181 | 0.041 | <0.001 | −0.177 | 0.041 | <0.001 | −0.161 | 0.041 | <0.001 |
40–44 | −0.202 | 0.041 | <0.001 | −0.196 | 0.041 | <0.001 | −0.175 | 0.041 | <0.001 | |
45+ | −0.266 | 0.047 | <0.001 | −0.262 | 0.046 | <0.001 | −0.242 | 0.046 | <0.001 | |
Maternal education | High school or less | 0.185 | 0.024 | <0.001 | 0.176 | 0.024 | <0.001 | 0.159 | 0.024 | <0.001 |
(ref: university/grad school) | Technical school, small college | 0.060 | 0.022 | 0.007 | 0.057 | 0.022 | 0.010 | 0.050 | 0.022 | 0.025 |
Other | 0.128 | 0.065 | 0.047 | 0.122 | 0.065 | 0.058 | 0.108 | 0.064 | 0.093 | |
Maternal unemployment | (ref: employed) | −0.060 | 0.019 | 0.001 | −0.057 | 0.019 | 0.002 | −0.053 | 0.019 | 0.005 |
Parental psychological distress (ref: no) | Yes (K6: 5+) | 0.544 | 0.019 | <0.001 | 0.530 | 0.019 | <0.001 | 0.524 | 0.019 | <0.001 |
Number of consulting sources (ref: five+) | Three to four | 0.039 | 0.053 | 0.462 | 0.039 | 0.053 | 0.460 | 0.043 | 0.053 | 0.416 |
One to two | 0.146 | 0.051 | 0.004 | 0.145 | 0.051 | 0.004 | 0.144 | 0.051 | 0.004 | |
None | 0.319 | 0.058 | <0.001 | 0.303 | 0.058 | <0.001 | 0.301 | 0.058 | <0.001 | |
Year of survey (ref: 2015) | 2017 | 0.053 | 0.021 | 0.012 | 0.057 | 0.021 | 0.007 | 0.057 | 0.021 | 0.007 |
2019 | 0.069 | 0.022 | 0.001 | 0.071 | 0.022 | 0.001 | 0.075 | 0.022 | 0.001 | |
Low income | <3M yen | 0.057 | 0.034 | 0.095 | 0.033 | 0.034 | 0.340 | 0.013 | 0.034 | 0.695 |
(ref: >3M yen) | Missing | 0.013 | 0.026 | 0.628 | 0.011 | 0.026 | 0.678 | 0.012 | 0.026 | 0.654 |
Child deprivation (ref: none) | One or more | 0.252 | 0.040 | <0.001 | ||||||
Life deprivation (ref: none) | One or more | 0.220 | 0.026 | <0.001 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | S.E. | p-Value | Coef | S.E. | p-Value | Coef | S.E. | p-Value | ||
Child sex (ref: female) | Male | −0.355 | 0.018 | <0.001 | −0.355 | 0.018 | <0.001 | −0.355 | 0.018 | <0.001 |
Child age | (Months) | 0.019 | 0.003 | <0.001 | 0.019 | 0.003 | <0.001 | 0.019 | 0.003 | <0.001 |
Number of parents living at home (ref: two parents) | One parent | 0.072 | 0.039 | 0.063 | 0.072 | 0.039 | 0.066 | 0.071 | 0.039 | 0.067 |
None, other | −0.172 | 0.114 | 0.132 | −0.173 | 0.114 | 0.131 | −0.172 | 0.114 | 0.132 | |
Number of grandparents living at home (ref: none) | One grandparent | −0.036 | 0.041 | 0.375 | −0.036 | 0.041 | 0.377 | −0.036 | 0.041 | 0.376 |
Two + grandparents | 0.045 | 0.045 | 0.319 | 0.045 | 0.045 | 0.315 | 0.045 | 0.045 | 0.316 | |
Number of children in the household (ref: one child) | Two children | −0.027 | 0.024 | 0.269 | −0.027 | 0.024 | 0.271 | −0.027 | 0.024 | 0.269 |
Three children | −0.004 | 0.028 | 0.887 | −0.004 | 0.028 | 0.877 | −0.005 | 0.028 | 0.862 | |
Four + children | 0.020 | 0.044 | 0.649 | 0.019 | 0.044 | 0.674 | 0.018 | 0.045 | 0.692 | |
Maternal age | 30–34 (years old) | −0.122 | 0.045 | 0.007 | −0.121 | 0.045 | 0.007 | −0.121 | 0.045 | 0.007 |
(ref: age < 30) | 35–39 | −0.160 | 0.043 | <0.001 | −0.160 | 0.043 | <0.001 | −0.159 | 0.043 | <0.001 |
40–44 | −0.251 | 0.043 | <0.001 | −0.251 | 0.043 | <0.001 | −0.249 | 0.043 | <0.001 | |
45+ | −0.301 | 0.049 | <0.001 | −0.301 | 0.049 | <0.001 | −0.299 | 0.049 | <0.001 | |
Maternal education | High school or less | 0.020 | 0.025 | 0.428 | 0.019 | 0.025 | 0.441 | 0.018 | 0.025 | 0.469 |
(ref: university/grad school) | Technical school, small college | 0.002 | 0.023 | 0.941 | 0.002 | 0.023 | 0.947 | 0.001 | 0.023 | 0.963 |
Other | 0.051 | 0.068 | 0.450 | 0.051 | 0.068 | 0.454 | 0.050 | 0.068 | 0.462 | |
Maternal unemployment | (ref: employed) | 0.051 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.051 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.051 | 0.020 | 0.010 |
Parental psychological distress (ref: no) | Yes (K6: 5+) | −0.109 | 0.020 | <0.001 | −0.109 | 0.020 | <0.001 | −0.110 | 0.020 | <0.001 |
Number of consulting sources(ref: five+) | Three to four | −0.151 | 0.055 | 0.006 | −0.151 | 0.055 | 0.006 | −0.151 | 0.055 | 0.006 |
One to two | −0.284 | 0.053 | <0.001 | −0.284 | 0.053 | <0.001 | −0.284 | 0.053 | <0.001 | |
None | −0.408 | 0.061 | <0.001 | −0.409 | 0.061 | <0.001 | −0.409 | 0.061 | <0.001 | |
Year of survey (ref: 2015) | 2017 | 0.062 | 0.022 | 0.005 | 0.062 | 0.022 | 0.005 | 0.062 | 0.022 | 0.005 |
2019 | 0.053 | 0.023 | 0.019 | 0.053 | 0.023 | 0.019 | 0.053 | 0.023 | 0.019 | |
Low income | <3M yen | 0.040 | 0.036 | 0.259 | 0.039 | 0.036 | 0.280 | 0.038 | 0.036 | 0.297 |
(ref: >3M yen) | missing | 0.022 | 0.028 | 0.435 | 0.021 | 0.028 | 0.438 | 0.022 | 0.028 | 0.437 |
Child deprivation (ref: none) | One or more | 0.015 | 0.042 | 0.721 | ||||||
Life deprivation (ref: none) | One or more | 0.013 | 0.027 | 0.621 |
Income | % of total effect | |||
coef | S.E. | p-value | ||
Total effect | 0.129 | 0.035 | <0.001 | |
Direct effect | 0.060 | 0.034 | 0.077 | 46.3% |
Indirect effect via parental psychological distress | 0.058 | 0.008 | <0.001 | 45.0% |
Indirect effect via number of consulting sources | 0.027 | 0.004 | <0.001 | 20.8% |
Life-related deprivation | % of total effect | |||
coef | S.E. | p-value | ||
Total effect | 0.355 | 0.026 | <0.001 | |
Direct effect | 0.234 | 0.025 | <0.001 | 66.0% |
Indirect effect via parental psychological distress | 0.104 | 0.007 | <0.001 | 29.2% |
Indirect effect via number of consulting sources | 0.023 | 0.003 | <0.001 | 6.4% |
Child-related deprivation | % of total effect | |||
coef | S.E. | p-value | ||
Total effect | 0.458 | 0.041 | <0.001 | |
Direct effect | 0.274 | 0.040 | <0.001 | 59.9% |
Indirect effect via parental psychological distress | 0.160 | 0.012 | <0.001 | 35.0% |
Indirect effect via number of consulting sources | 0.031 | 0.005 | <0.001 | 6.9% |
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Yamaoka, Y.; Isumi, A.; Doi, S.; Ochi, M.; Fujiwara, T. Differential Effects of Multiple Dimensions of Poverty on Child Behavioral Problems: Results from the A-CHILD Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211821
Yamaoka Y, Isumi A, Doi S, Ochi M, Fujiwara T. Differential Effects of Multiple Dimensions of Poverty on Child Behavioral Problems: Results from the A-CHILD Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(22):11821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211821
Chicago/Turabian StyleYamaoka, Yui, Aya Isumi, Satomi Doi, Manami Ochi, and Takeo Fujiwara. 2021. "Differential Effects of Multiple Dimensions of Poverty on Child Behavioral Problems: Results from the A-CHILD Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 22: 11821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211821
APA StyleYamaoka, Y., Isumi, A., Doi, S., Ochi, M., & Fujiwara, T. (2021). Differential Effects of Multiple Dimensions of Poverty on Child Behavioral Problems: Results from the A-CHILD Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 11821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211821