Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Setting
2.2. Participants and Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics and PTSD Rates
3.2. Traumatic Experiences
3.3. Prevalence of PTSD and Other Mental Health Symptoms
3.4. Predictors for PTSD
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sociodemographic Characteristics | Females n (%) | Males n (%) | X2 | df | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 358 (43.6) | 464 (56.4) | |||
Age | 1.117 | 2 | 0.572 | ||
18–40 years old | 271 (75.7) | 347 (74.8) | |||
41–64 years old | 68 (19) | 98 (21.1) | |||
65 years old or more | 19 (5.3) | 19 (4.1) | |||
Religion | 1.714 a | 2 | 0.461 | ||
Yazidi | 355 (99.2) | 459 (98.9) | |||
Muslim | 1 (0.3) | 4 (0.9) | |||
Christian | 2 (0.6) | 1 (0.2) | |||
Marital Status | 0.556 | 1 | 0.456 | ||
Unmarried | 85 (23.7) | 100 (21.6) | |||
Married | 273 (76.3) | 364 (78.4) | |||
Educational Level | 70.931 | 3 | <0.001 * | ||
Illiterate | 218 (60.9) | 146 (31.5) | |||
Educated | 140 (39.1) | 318 (68.5) | |||
Employment | 72.415 | 1 | <0.001 * | ||
Unemployed | 351 (98) | 360 (77.6) | |||
Employed | 7 (2) | 104 (22.4) | |||
Number of Siblings | 7.192 | 3 | 0.027 | ||
1–4 siblings | 86 (24) | 81 (17.5) | |||
5–8 siblings | 141 (39.4) | 219 (47.2) | |||
9+ siblings | 131 (36.6) | 164 (35.3) | |||
Camp Stay in Months | 4.100 | 2 | 0.129 | ||
1–3 months | 7 (2) | 4 (0.9) | |||
4–6 months | 17 (4.7) | 13 (2.8) | |||
7–10 months | 334 (93.3) | 447 (96.3) | |||
PTSD (by HTQ) | 104 (29.1) | 148 (31.9) | 0.770 | 1 | 0.212 |
Psychological Distress (by GHQ-28) | 311 (86.9) | 386 (83.2) | 2.125 | 1 | 0.170 |
Common Mental Disorders (by SRQ-20) | 233 (65.1) | 257 (55.4) | 7.891 | 1 | 0.005 |
Traumatic Event | n of Events | Females | Males | t | df | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | |||||
Exposure to combat situation, torture, or oppressions | 5 | 1.69 | 0.891 | 1.92 | 0.867 | 3.718 | 819 | <0.001 * |
Murder, kidnapping, disappearance of others | 6 | 0.95 | 1.146 | 1.16 | 1.280 | 2.354 | 818 | 0.019 |
Forced to leave hometown | 2 | 1.89 | 0.420 | 1.90 | 0.392 | 0.196 | 818 | 0.845 |
Lack of housing or basic needs | 2 | 1.73 | 0.593 | 1.66 | 0.623 | −1.486 | 819 | 0.138 |
Destruction of personal properties, religious, or residential areas | 3 | 0.29 | 0.617 | 0.54 | 0.854 | 4.758 | 817 | <0.001 * |
Forced isolation | 3 | 2.76 | 0.573 | 2.75 | 0.536 | −0.252 | 820 | 0.801 |
Head injury and starvation | 6 | 1.57 | 0.685 | 1.61 | 0.718 | 0.677 | 819 | 0.499 |
Mental Symptoms | Range | Females | Males | t (df = 820) | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | ||||
Total Number of Traumatic Events | 0–43 | 9.57 | 2.628 | 10.53 | 3.192 | 4.599 | <0.001 * |
PTSD (HTQ-16) | 1–4 | 2.28 | 0.490 | 2.25 | 0.525 | 0700 | 0.484 |
PTSD (HTQ-45) | 1–4 | 2.08 | 0.461 | 2.09 | 0.453 | −0.152 | 0.880 |
(1) Intrusions | 1–4 | 2.66 | 0.583 | 2.60 | 0.607 | 1.346 | 0.179 |
(2) Avoidance | 1–4 | 3.21 | 0.823 | 3.12 | 0.892 | 1.428 | 0.154 |
(3) Numbing | 1–4 | 1.70 | 0.652 | 1.83 | 0.644 | −2.847 | 0.005 |
(4) Hyperarousal | 1–4 | 2.18 | 0.680 | 2.05 | 0.709 | 2.638 | 0.008 |
Total GHQ-28 | 0–28 | 10.88 | 5.447 | 9.84 | 4.918 | 2.858 | 0.004 |
(1) Somatic symptoms | 0–7 | 3.38 | 2.259 | 2.38 | 2.145 | 6.465 | <0.001 * |
(2) Anxiety/insomnia | 0–7 | 3.22 | 1.942 | 2.83 | 2.008 | 2.827 | 0.005 |
(3) Social dysfunction | 0–7 | 1.80 | 1.793 | 1.99 | 1.891 | −1.480 | 0.139 |
(4) Severe depression | 0–7 | 2.47 | 1.485 | 2.64 | 1.343 | −1.648 | 0.100 |
Total SRQ-20 | 0–20 | 9.52 | 4.538 | 8.45 | 4.389 | 3.428 | 0.001 * |
(1) Depressive/anxious | 0–4 | 2.15 | 1.237 | 1.62 | 1.079 | 6.558 | <0.001 * |
(2) Somatic symptoms | 0–6 | 2.84 | 1.838 | 2.10 | 1.798 | 5.807 | <0.001 * |
(3) Reduced vital energy | 0–6 | 2.88 | 1.798 | 2.91 | 1.794 | −251 | 0.802 |
(4) Depressive thoughts | 0–4 | 1.65 | 1.115 | 1.81 | 1.094 | −2.086 | 0.037 |
Demographic Variables | PTSD Cases | Odd Ratios (OR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Females n (%) | Males n (%) | Females (95%CI) | Males (95%CI) | ||
Age | |||||
18–40 years | 72 (69.2) | 113 (76.4) | Ref | Ref | |
41–64 years | 24 (23.1) | 29 (19.6) | 1.45 (0.78–2.71) | 0.70 (0.42–1.19) | |
65+ years | 8 (7.7) | 6 (4.1) | 2.28 (0.81–6.43) | 0.77 (0.27–2.18) | |
Marital Status | |||||
Unmarried | 30 (28.8) | 21 (14.2) | Ref | Ref | |
Married | 74 (71.2) | 127 (85.8) | 0.61 (0.34–1.11) | 2.15 (1.22–3.78) | |
Education | |||||
Illiterate | 74 (71.2) | 59 (39.9) | Ref | Ref | |
Some education | 30 (28.8) | 89 (60.1) | 0.46 (0.27–0.81) | 0.62 (0.40–0.95) | |
Work Status | |||||
Unemployed | 4 (3.8) | 29 (19.6) | Ref | Ref | |
Employed | 100 (96.2) | 119 (80.4) | 0.25 (0.05–1.29) | 1.30 (0.79–2.14) | |
n of Siblings | |||||
1–4 siblings | 14 (13.5) | 24 (16.2) | Ref | Ref | |
5–8 siblings | 47 (45.2) | 69 (46.6) | 2.54 (1.24–5.19) | 1.19 (0.67–2.14) | |
9+ siblings | 43 (41.3) | 55 (37.2) | 2.41 (1.16–4.99) | 1.28 (0.70–2.32) | |
Camp stay | - | - | 1.50 (1.09–2.07) | 1.27 (0.98–1.66) | |
n of traumas | - | - | 1.16 (1.05–1.27) | 1.01 (0.95–1.07) |
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Taha, P.H.; Sijbrandij, M. Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9779. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189779
Taha PH, Sijbrandij M. Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9779. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189779
Chicago/Turabian StyleTaha, Perjan Hashim, and Marit Sijbrandij. 2021. "Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9779. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189779
APA StyleTaha, P. H., & Sijbrandij, M. (2021). Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 9779. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189779