The Relationship between Individual and Family Characteristics and Cyberbullying Exposure in a Nationally Representative Sample of School-Aged Children Living in Serbia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design and Sample
2.2. Study Instrument and Variables
2.2.1. Outcome Variables
- Someone sent malicious instant messages, posted on the wall, sent emails or text messages, or designed a website where others made fun of me;
- Someone took photos of me that are not suitable for sharing without my permission and posted them on the Internet”.
- “I have not been abused in this way in the past couple of months”—None;
- “Once or twice”—At least once;
- “Two or three times a month; About once a week; Several times a week;”—Multiple times;
- “I don’t know/no answer”—Missing;
- At least once versus none (Model 1);
- Multiple times versus none (Model 2); and
- Multiple times versus at least once (Module 3).
2.2.2. Explanatory Variables
- The family size, i.e., number of family members (2–3 members, 4–5 members, 6–7 members, 8 and more members);
- Live with (both parents, one parent, one parent and step-father/mother, relatives/legal guardians);
- Brothers and sisters (none, one sister/brother, two or more sisters/brothers);
- Family Affluence Scale (FAS) (low, average, high);
- Father’s employment (unemployed, employed, don’t know/not seeing father);
- Mother’s employment (unemployed, employed, don’t know/not seeing mother);
- Opinion of the family financial state (bad, average, good);
- Think the important things are talked about in family (absolutely disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, absolutely agree);
- When a student speaks, someone in the family listens to what he/she says (absolutely disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, absolutely agree);
- When don’t understand something, questions are asked in student’s family;
- When there is disagreement, in student’s family, they talk until it is resolved;
- Student talks with father about the things that bother the student;
- Students talks with mother about the things that bother the student;
- Student talks with step-father about the things that bother the student;
- Students talks with step-mother about the things that bother the student;
- Family is trying really to help the student;
- Student receives from family necessary emotional help and support;
- Student can talk about his/her problems with family;
- Family is ready to help him/her in decision making.
2.2.3. Family Affluence Scale (FAS)
2.3. Statistical Analysis
- -
- In the first model (Model 1), the reference was “not exposed (none) (0)” versus “exposed at least once (1)”.
- -
- In the second model (Model 2), the reference was “not exposed (none) (0)” versus “exposed multiple times (1)”.
- -
- In the third model (Model 3), the reference was “exposed at least once (0)” versus “exposed multiple times (1)”.
3. Results
3.1. The Prevalence of Cyberbullying Exposure among School-Aged Children in Serbia, 2017
3.2. Models of Cyberbullying Exposure among School-Aged Children in Serbia, 2017
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Sample * n (%) | Cyberbullying Exposure Prevalence (%) and (95% CI) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
At Least Once | Multiple Times | Total | ||
Individual characteristics | ||||
1. Gender | 3267 (100) | |||
Boys | 1633 (51.3) | 6.9 (5.6–8.1) | 3.9 (3.0–4.9) | 10.8 (9.3–12.3) |
Girls | 1553 (48.7) | 10.6 (9.1–12.2) | 2.4 (1.7–3.2) | 13.1 (11.4–14.7) |
Pearson Chi-square p | 0.156 | <0.001 | 0.018 | 0.045 |
2. Age, years | 3186 (100) | |||
mean ± standard deviation | 14.2 ± 1.71 | |||
11–12 | 854 (26.8) | 5.3 (3.8–6.8) | 2.6 (1.5–3.6) | 7.8 (6.0–9.6) |
13–14 | 931 (29.2) | 10.3 (8.4–12.3) | 3.2 (2.1–4.4) | 13.5 (11.3–15.7) |
15–17 | 1401 (44.0) | 9.7 (8.2–11.3) | 3.6 (2.6–4.5) | 13.3 (11.5–15.1) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.430 | <0.001 |
3. School type, grade | 3186 (100) | |||
Primary, V grade | 876 (27.5) | 5.3 (3.8–6.7) | 2.9 (1.8–4.0) | 8.1 (6.3–9.9) |
Primary, VII grade | 922 (28.9) | 10.6 (8.6–12.6) | 2.9 (1.8–4.0) | 13.6 (11.3–15.8) |
Gymnasium, I grade | 342 (10.7) | 10.5 (7.3–13.8) | 4.4 (2.2–6.6) | 14.9 (11.1–18.7) |
Vocational school, I grade | 1046 (32.8) | 9.3 (7.5–11.0) | 3.3 (2.3–4.4) | 12.6 (10.6–14.6) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.535 | <0.001 |
4. Life satisfaction | 3149 (100) | |||
Very bad | 28 (0.9) | 7.1 (−2.4–16.7) | 14.3 (1.3–27.2) | 21.4 (6.2–36.6) |
Bad | 62 (2.0) | 17.7 (8.2–27.3) | 6.5 (0.3–12.6) | 24.2 (13.5–34.9) |
Average | 520 (16.5) | 14.2 (11.2–17.2) | 3.5 (1.9–5.0) | 17.7 (14.4–21.0) |
Good | 1046 (33.2) | 9.8 (8.0–11.5) | 2.5 (1.5–3.4) | 12.2 (10.3–14.2) |
Very good | 1493 (47.4) | 5.4 (4.2–6.5) | 3.1 (2.3–4.0) | 8.5 (7.1–9.9) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.004 | <0.001 |
5. Region | 3186 (100) | |||
Belgrade | 681 (21.4) | 8.8 (6.7–10.9) | 4.0 (2.5–5.4) | 12.8 (10.3–15.3) |
Vojvodina | 732 (23.0) | 8.5 (6.5–10.5) | 3.6 (2.2–4.9) | 12.0 (9.7–14.4) |
Sumadija and Western Serbia | 1078 (33.8) | 7.5 (5.9–9.1) | 2.5 (1.6–3.4) | 10.0 (8.2–11.8) |
Southern and Eastern Serbia | 695 (21.8) | 10.6 (8.4–12.9) | 3.2 (1.9–4.5) | 13.8 (11.2–16.4) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.152 | 0.353 | 0.087 |
Family characteristics | ||||
Family size (number of members) | 3001 (100) | |||
Mean ± standard deviation | 4.81 ± 1.40 | |||
2–3 members | 388 (12.9) | 9.0 (6.2–11.9) | 3.4 (1.6–5.1) | 12.4 (9.1–15.6) |
4–5 members | 1768 (58.9) | 9.1 (7.8–10.4) | 2.7 (1.9–3.4) | 11.8 (10.3–13.3) |
6–7 members | 748 (24.9) | 8.7 (6.7–10.7) | 2.5 (1.4–3.7) | 11.2 (9.0–13.5) |
Eight and more members | 97 (3.2) | 8.2 (2.8–13.7) | 4.1 (0.2–8.1) | 12.4 (5.8–18.9) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.175 | 0.711 | 0.945 |
Live with | 3001 (100) | |||
Both parents | 2540 (84.6) | 8.6 (7.5–9.7) | 2.8 (2.2–3.4) | 11.4 (10.1–12.6) |
One parent | 368 (12.3) | 10.9 (7.7–14.0) | 3.0 (1.2–4.7) | 13.9 (10.3–17.4) |
One parent and stepfather/mother | 58 (1.9) | 6.9 (0.4–13.4) | 1.7 (−1.6–5.1) | 8.6 (1.4–15.8) |
Relatives/Legal guardians | 35 (1.2) | 11.4 (0.9–22.0) | 0 | 11.4 (0.9–22.0) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.450 | 0.728 | 0.485 |
Have brothers and sisters | 3046 (100) | |||
None | 350 (11.5) | 9.1 (6.1–12.2) | 2.6 (0.9–4.2) | 11.7 (8.3–15.1) |
One | 1698 (55.7) | 9.3 (7.9–10.7) | 2.8 (2.0–3.5) | 12.1 (10.5–13.6) |
Two or more | 998 (32.8) | 7.4 (5.8–9.0) | 3.0 (1.9–4.1) | 10.4 (8.5–12.3) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.895 | 0.734 |
Family affluence (FAS) | 3135 (100) | |||
Mean ± standard deviation | 7.26 ± 2.54 | |||
Low | 475 (15.2) | 9.5 (6.8–12.1) | 2.5(1.1–3.9) | 12.0 (9.1–14.9) |
Average | 2020 (64.4) | 8.4 (7.2–9.6) | 3.1 (2.3–3.8) | 11.4 (10.0–12.8) |
High | 640 (20.4) | 9.5 (7.3–11.8) | 3.8 (2.3–5.2) | 13.3 (10.7–15.9) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.557 | 0.495 | 0.426 |
Father’s employment | 3125 (100) | |||
Unemployed | 418 (13.4) | 8.9 (6.1–11.6) | 3.3 (1.6–5.1) | 12.2 (9.1–15.3) |
Employed | 2594 (83.0) | 8.8 (7.7–9.9) | 2.7 (2.1–3.4) | 11.5 (10.3–12.8) |
Don’t know | 113 (3.6) | 9.7 (4.3–15.2) | 12.4 (6.3–18.5) | 22.1 (14.5–29.8) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.949 | <0.001 | 0.003 |
Mother’s employment | 3148 (100) | |||
Unemployed | 985 (31.3) | 7.8 (6.1–9.5) | 3.1 (2.1–4.2) | 11.0 (9.0–12.9) |
Employed | 2115 (67.2) | 9.3 (8.1–10.6) | 2.9 (2.2–3.7) | 12.2 (10.8–13.6) |
Don’t know | 48 (1.5) | 2.1 (−2.0–6.1) | 10.4 (1.8–19.1) | 12.5 (3.1–21.9) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.010 | 0.013 | 0.584 |
Opinion on the family financial state | 3161 (100) | |||
Bad | 157 (5.0) | 18.5 (12.4 –24.5) | 10.8 (6.0–15.7) | 29.3 (22.2–36.4) |
Average | 986 (31.2) | 10.0 (8.2–11.9) | 2.7 (1.7–3.8) | 12.8 (10.7–14.9) |
Good | 2018 (63.8) | 7.4 (6.2–8.5) | 2.8 (2.1–3.5) | 10.2 (8.8–11.5) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
In my family, I think the important things are talked about | 3132 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 42 (1.3) | 14.3 (3.7–24.9) | 11.9 (2.1–21.7) | 26.2 (12.9–39.5) |
Disagree | 62 (2.0) | 19.4 (9.5–29.2) | 3.2 (-1.2–7.6) | 22.6 (12.2–33.0) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 286 (9.1) | 9.4 (6.1–12.8) | 5.2 (2.7–7.8) | 14.7 (10.6–18.8) |
Agree | 952 (30.4) | 9.5 (7.6–11.3) | 1.8 (0.9–2.6) | 11.2 (9.2–13.2) |
Absolutely agree | 1790 (57.2) | 7.8 (6.6–9.1) | 3.3 (2.5–4.1) | 11.1 (9.7–12.6) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.011 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
In my family, when I speak someone listens to what I say | 3119 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 73 (2.3) | 13.7 (5.8–21.6) | 5.5 (0.3–10.7) | 19.2 (10.1–28.2) |
Disagree | 108 (3.5) | 12.0 (5.9–18.2) | 4.6 (0.7–8.6) | 16.7 (9.6–23.7) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 289 (9.3) | 10.0 (6.6–13.5) | 4.2 (1.9–6.5) | 14.2 (10.2–18.2) |
Agree | 1014 (32.5) | 10.5 (8.6–12.3) | 2.6 (1.6–3.5) | 13.0 (10.9–15.1) |
Absolutely agree | 1635 (52.4) | 7.2 (5.9–8.4) | 2.9 (2.1–3.8) | 10.1 (8.6–11.6) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.012 | 0.349 | 0.008 |
In my family, when I don’t understand something, we ask questions | 3119 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 38 (1.2) | 10.5 (0.8–20.3) | 18.8 (4.2–27.4) | 26.3 (12.3–40.3) |
Disagree | 65 (2.1) | 20.0 (10.3–29.7) | 4.6 (−0.5–9.7) | 24.6 (14.1–35.1) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 228 (7.3) | 11.4 (7.3–15.5) | 6.6 (3.4–9.8) | 18.0 (13.0–23.0) |
Agree | 996 (31.9) | 8.5 (6.8–10.3) | 2.5 (1.5–3.5) | 11.0 (9.1–13.0) |
Absolutely agree | 1792 (57.5) | 8.2 (6.9–9.5) | 2.7 (1.9–3.4) | 10.9 (9.4–12.3) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.010 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
In my family, when there is disagreement, we talk until it is resolved | 3115 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 78 (2.5) | 12.8 (5.4–20.2) | 11.5 (4.4–18.6) | 24.4 (14.8–33.9) |
Disagree | 134 (4.3) | 14.2 (8.3–20.1) | 3.7 (0.5–6.9) | 17.9 (11.4–24.4) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 289 (9.3) | 11.1 (7.5–14.7) | 3.8 (1.6–6.0) | 14.9 (10.8–10.8) |
Agree | 825 (26.5) | 9.6 (7.6–11.6) | 2.1 (1.1–3.0) | 11.6 (9.4–13.8) |
Absolutely agree | 1789 (57.4) | 7.4 (6.2–8.6) | 3.0 (2.2–3.7) | 10.4 (9.0–11.8) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.013 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Can you talk with further family members about the things that bother you? | ||||
Father | 2935 (100) | |||
Very easy | 1472 (47.3) | 6.3 (5.1–7.6) | 3.2 (2.3–4.1) | 9.5 (8.0–11.0) |
Easy | 879 (28.2) | 9.9 (7.9–11.9) | 1.3 (0.5–2.0) | 11.1 (9.1–13.2) |
Hard | 388 (12.5) | 12.1 (8.9–15.4) | 5.2 (3.0–7.4) | 17.3 (13.5–21.0) |
Very hard | 196 (6.3) | 15.8 (10.7–20.9) | 5.6 (2.4–8.8) | 21.4 (15.7–27.2) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Step-father | 188 (100) | |||
Very easy | 74 (3.3) | 8.1 (1.9–14.3) | 8.1 (1.9–14.3) | 16.2 (7.8–24.6) |
Easy | 52 (2.3) | 9.6 (1.6–17.6) | 5.8 (−0.6–12.1) | 15.4 (5.6–25.2) |
Hard | 29 (1.3) | 10.3 (−0.7–21.4) | 13.8 (1.2–26.3) | 24.1 (8.6–39.7) |
Very hard | 33 (1.5) | 15.2 (2.9–27.4) | 15.2 (2.9–27.4) | 30.3 (14.6–46.0) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.737 | 0.418 | 0.274 |
Mother | 3048 (100) | |||
Very easy | 2088 (67.3) | 7.5 (6.4–8.7) | 2.7 (2.0–3.4) | 10.2 (8.9–11.5) |
Easy | 682 (22.0) | 10.1 (7.9–12.4) | 3.7 (2.3–5.1) | 13.8 (11.2–16.4) |
Hard | 196 (6.3) | 17.9 (12.5–23.2) | 4.1 (1.3–6.9) | 21.9 (16.1–27.7) |
Very hard | 82 (2.6) | 12.2 (5.1–19.3) | 6.1 (0.9–11.3) | 18.3 (9.9–26.7) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.168 | <0.001 |
Step-mother | 149 (100) | |||
Very easy | 63 (2.8) | 15.9 (6.8–24.9) | 3.2 (−1.2–7.5) | 19.0 (9.4–28.7) |
Easy | 38 (1.7) | 5.3 (−1.8–12.4) | 5.3 (−1.8–12.4) | 10.5 (0.8–20.3) |
Hard | 18 (0.8) | 5.6 (−5.0–16.1) | 33.3 (11.6–55.1) | 38.9 (16.4–61.4) |
Very hard | 30 (1.3) | 10.0 (−0.7–20.7) | 20.0 (5.7–34.3) | 30.0 (13.6–46.4) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | 0.328 | <0.001 | 0.059 |
My family is trying really to help me | 3128 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 177 (5.7) | 9.0 (4.8–13.3) | 7.9 (3.9–11.9) | 16.9 (11.4–22.5) |
Disagree | 98 (3.1) | 15.3 (8.2–22.4) | 8.2 (2.7–13.6) | 23.5 (15.1–31.9) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 91 (2.9) | 9.9 (3.8–16.0) | 4.4 (0.2–8.6) | 14.3 (7.1–21.5) |
Agree | 357 (11.4) | 15.7 (11.9–19.5) | 2.2 (0.7–3.8) | 17.9 (13.9–21.9) |
Absolutely agree | 2405 (76.9) | 7.4 (6.4–8.4) | 2.5 (1.9–3.1) | 9.9 (8.7–11.1) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
I receive from my family necessary emotional help and support | 3110 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 186 (6.0) | 6.5 (2.9–10.0) | 8.1 (4.2–12.0) | 14.5 (9.5–19.6) |
Disagree | 127 (4.1) | 15.0 (8.8–21.2) | 6.3 (2.1–10.5) | 21.3 (14.1–28.4) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 98 (3.2) | 18.4 (10.7–26.0) | 2.0 (−0.8–4.8) | 20.4 (12.4–28.4) |
Agree | 460 (14.8) | 13.3 (10.2–16.4) | 2.4 (1.0–3.8) | 15.7 (12.3–19.0) |
Absolutely agree | 2239 (72.0) | 7.4 (6.3–8.5) | 2.5 (1.8–3.1) | 9.9 (8.6–11.1) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
With my family I can talk about my problems | 3112 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 195 (6.3) | 10.8 (6.4–15.1) | 8.2 (4.4–12.1) | 19.0 (13.5–24.5) |
Disagree | 172 (5.5) | 11.0 (6.4–15.7) | 3.5 (0.7–6.2) | 14.5 (9.3–19.8) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 117 (3.8) | 14.5 (8.1–20.9) | 6.8 (2.3–11.4) | 21.4 (13.9–28.8) |
Agree | 521 (16.7) | 14.2 (11.2–17.2) | 1.9 (0.7–3.1) | 16.1 (13.0–19.3) |
Absolutely agree | 2107 (67.7) | 6.9 (5.8–8.0) | 2.5 (1.8–3.2) | 9.4 (8.2–10.6) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
My family is ready to help me in decision making | 3115 (100) | |||
Absolutely disagree | 177 (5.7) | 7.9 (3.9–11.9) | 9.0 (4.8–13.3) | 16.9 (11.4–22.5) |
Disagree | 97 (3.1) | 15.5 (8.3–22.7) | 4.1 (0.2–8.1) | 19.6 (11.7–27.5) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 79 (2.5) | 11.4 (4.4–18.4) | 5.1 (0.2–9.9) | 16.5 (8.3–24.6) |
Agree | 417 (13.4) | 14.9 (11.5–18.3) | 2.6 (1.1–4.2) | 17.5 (13.9–21.2) |
Absolutely agree | 2345 (75.3) | 7.5 (6.4–8.6) | 2.5 (1.8–1.1) | 10.0 (8.8–11.2) |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Variables | Sample * n (%) | Cyberbullying Exposure Prevalence (%) and (95% CI) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At Least Once | Multiple Times | Total | |||||||||
Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | p | Boys | Girls | p | Boys | Girls | p | |
Individual characteristics | |||||||||||
Age, years | 1633 (100) | 1553 (100) | |||||||||
11–12 | 414 (25.4) | 440 (28.3) | 2.6 (1.5–3.6) | 2.7 (1.6–3.8) | 0.879 | 1.8 (0.9–2.6) | 0.8 (0.2–1.4) | 0.086 | 4.3 (3.0–5.7) | 3.5 (2.3–4.7) | 0.380 |
13–14 | 464 (28.4) | 467 (30.1) | 3.4 (2.3–4.6) | 2.0 (1.1–2.9) | <0.001 | 2.0 (1.1–2.9) | 1.2 (0.5–1.9) | 0.141 | 5.5 (4.0–6.9) | 8.1 (6.3–9.8) | 0.027 |
15–17 | 755 (46.2) | 646 (41.6) | 4.1 (3.1–5.2) | 5.6 (4.4–6.8) | 0.079 | 2.1 (1.4–2.9) | 1.4 (0.8–2.0) | 0.154 | 6.3 (5.0–7.6) | 7.0 (5.7–8.3) | 0.448 |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.816 | <0.001 | 0.145 | 0.435 | 0.001 | <0.001 | |||
School type, grade | 1633 (100) | 1553 (100) | |||||||||
Primary, V grade | 429 (26.3) | 447 (28.8) | 2.5 (1.5–3.5) | 2.7 (1.7–3.8) | 0.765 | 2.1 (1.1–3.0) | 0.8 (0.2–1.4) | 0.027 | 4.6 (3.2–5.9) | 3.5 (2.3–4.8) | 0.275 |
Primary, VII grade | 458 (28.0) | 464 (29.9) | 3.6 (2.4–4.8) | 7.0 (5.4–8.7) | <0.001 | 1.7 (0.9–2.6) | 1.2 (0.5–1.9) | 0.332 | 5.3 (3.9–6.8) | 8.2 (6.5–10.0) | 0.012 |
Gymnasium, I grade | 140 (8.6) | 202 (13.0) | 2.3 (0.7–3.9) | 8.2 (5.3–11.1) | <0.001 | 2.0 (0.5–3.5) | 2.3 (0.7–3.9) | 0.794 | 4.4 (2.2–6.6) | 10.5 (7.3–13.8) | 0.002 |
Vocational school, I grade | 606 (37.1) | 440 (28.3) | 4.7 (3.4–6.0) | 4.6 (3.3–5.9) | 0.916 | 2.2 (1.3–3.1) | 1.1 (0.5–1.8) | 0.061 | 6.9 (5.3–8.4) | 5.7 (4.3–7.1) | 0.281 |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.041 | <0.001 | 0.907 | 0.173 | 0.104 | <0.001 | |||
Family characteristics | |||||||||||
Family affluence (FAS) | 1629 (100) | 1506 (100) | |||||||||
Low | 243 (14.9) | 232 (15.4) | 2.9 (1.4–4.5) | 6.5 (4.3–8.7) | 0.009 | 1.9 (0.7–3.1) | 0.6 (−0.1–1.3) | 0.081 | 4.8 (2.9–6.8) | 7.2 (4.8–9.5) | 0.133 |
Average | 1034 (63.5) | 986 (65.5) | 3.4 (2.6–4.2) | 5.0 (4.0–5.9) | 0.015 | 1.7 (1.2–2.3) | 1.3 (0.8–1.8) | 0.306 | 5.1 (4.2–6.1) | 6.3 (5.2–7.3) | 0.119 |
High | 352 (21.6) | 288 (19.1) | 4.4 (2.8–6.0) | 5.2 (3.4–6.9) | 0.512 | 2.7 (1.4–3.9) | 1.1 (0.3–1.9) | 0.039 | 7.0 (5.1–9.0) | 6.3 (4.4–8.1) | 0.574 |
Pearson Chi-square p | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.389 | 0.380 | 0.336 | 0.429 | 0.152 | 0.771 |
Individual and Family Characteristics | Models of Cyberbullying Exposure, OR (95% CI) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Model 1: None versus at Least Once | Model 2: None versus Multiple | Model 3: at Least Once versus Multiple | |
Individual characteristics | |||
Gender | |||
Boys | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Girls | 1.59 (1.24–2.04) ** | 0.64 (0.43–0.96) * | 0.40 (0.25–0.64) ** |
Age years | |||
11–12 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
13–14 | 2.09 (1.44–3.01) ** | 1.33 (0.76–2.33) | 0.64 (0.33–1.23) |
15–17 | 1.96 (1.38–2.77) ** | 1.47 (0.89–2.45) | 0.75 (0.41–1.38) |
School type, grade | |||
Primary, V grade | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Primary, VII grade | 2.15 (1.50–3.10) ** | 1.09 (0.63–1.90) | 0.51 (0.27–0.97) * |
Gymnasium, I grade | 2.1 (1.37–3.42) ** | 1.66 (0.86–3.19) | 0.77 (0.35–1.66) |
Vocational school, I grade | 1.86 (1.29–2.67) ** | 1.23 (0.73–2.08) | 0.66 (0.36–1.24) |
Life satisfaction | |||
Very bad | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Bad | 2.57 (0.53–12.6) | 0.47 (0.11–2.05) | 0.29 (0.05–1.67) |
Average | 1.90 (0.44–8.26) | 0.23 (0.07–0.74) * | 0.18 (0.02–1.41) |
Good | 1.22 (0.28–5.27) | 0.16 (0.05–0.48) ** | 0.13 (0.02–0.73) * |
Very good | 0.64 (0.15–2.79) | 0.19 (0.06–0.57) ** | 0.12 (0.02–0.72) * |
Family characteristics | |||
Family size (number of members) | |||
2–3 members | 1 | 1 | 1 |
4–5 members | 1.00 (0.68–1.47) | 0.79 (0.42–1.47) | 0.79 (0.38–1.61) |
6–7 members | 0.95 (0.62–0.46) | 0.75 (0.37–1.53) | 0.79 (0.35–1.78) |
Eight and more members | 0.55 (0.21–1.45) | 1.19 (0.38–3.74) | 2.15 (0.50–9.28) |
Live with | |||
Both parents | 1 | 1 | 1 |
One parent | 1.30 (0.91–1.86) | 1.10 (0.58–2.10) | 0.84 (0.41–1.73) |
One parent, stepfather/mother | 0.78 (0.28–2.17) | 0.60 (0.08–4.39) | 0.77 (0.08–6.98) |
Relatives/legal guardians | 1.33 (0.47–3.81) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Have brothers and sisters | |||
None | 1 | 1 | 1 |
One | 1.02 (0.69–1.52) | 1.08 (0.52–2.23) | 1.06 (0.47–2.37) |
Two or more | 0.80 (0.52–1.23) | 1.15 (0.54–2.45) | 1.44 (0.62–3.38) |
Family affluence (FAS) | |||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Average | 0.88 (0.62–1.24) | 1.21 (0.65–2.26) | 1.38 (0.68–2.77) |
High | 1.02 (0.68–1.53) | 1.51 (0.75–3.05) | 1.48 (0.67–3.26) |
Father’s employment | |||
Unemployed | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Employed | 0.99 (0.68–1.42) | 0.81 (0.45–1.45) | 0.82 (0.42–1.61) |
Don’t know | 1.24 (0.61–2.53) | 4.17 (1.92–9.07) ** | 3.36 (1.24–9.15) * |
Mother’s employment | |||
Unemployed | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Employed | 1.21 (0.92–1.59) | 0.95 (0.61–1.47) | 0.78 (0.47–1.30) |
Don’t know | 0.27 (0.04–1.99) | 3.36 (1.25–9.10)* | 12.40 (1.39–110.60) * |
Perception of family financial status | |||
Bad | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Average | 0.44 (0.28–0.70) ** | 0.21 (0.11–0.39) ** | 0.64 (0.33–1.26) |
Good | 0.32 (0.20–0.49) ** | 0.20 (0.11–0.36) ** | 0.47 (0.22–0.97)* |
In my family, I think the important things are talked about | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 1.29 (0.44–3.80) | 0.26 (0.05–1.42) | 0.20 (0.03–1.35) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.57 (0.22–1.49) | 0.38 (0.13–1.12) | 0.67 (0.17–2.56) |
Agree | 055 (0.22–1.36) | 0.23 (0.09–0.61) ** | 0.51 (0.15–1.72) |
Absolutely agree | 0.46 (0.19–1.11) | 0.13 (0.04–0.36) ** | 0.23 (0.06–0.83) * |
In my family, when I speak, someone listens to what I say | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 0.85 (0.35–2.07) | 0.82 (0.21–3.18) | 0.96 (0.20–4.54) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.69 (0.32–1.49) | 0.71 (0.22–2.29) | 1.03 (0.27–3.95) |
Agree | 0.71 (0.35–1.43) | 0.44 (0.15–1.29) | 0.61 (0.18–2.11) |
Absolutely agree | 0.47 (0.23–0.94) * | 0.48 (0.17–1.38) | 1.03 (0.31–3.43) |
In my family, when I don’t understand something, we ask questions | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 1.86 (0.55–6.25) | 0.29 (0.07–1.23) | 0.39 (0.09–1.59) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.97 (0.32–3.00) | 0.37 (0.13–1.05) | 0.22 (0.06–0.80) * |
Agree | 0.67 (0.23–1.96) | 0.13 (0.05–0.35) ** | 0.20 (0.05–0.75) * |
Absolutely agree | 0.64 (0.22–1.86) | 0.14 (0.06–0.36) ** | 0.15 (0.03–0.91) * |
In my family, when there is disagreement, we talk until it is resolved | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 1.02 (0.44–2.33) | 0.30 (0.10–0.93) | 0.29 (0.08–1.11) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.77 (0.36–1.65) | 0.29 (0.12–0.74) ** | 0.38 (0.12–1.18) |
Agree | 0.64 (0.32–1.30) | 0.22 (0.10–0.46) ** | 0.44 (0.17–1.15) |
Absolutely agree | 0.49 (0.25–0.98) * | 0.15 (0.07–0.36) ** | 0.24 (0.08–0.68) ** |
In the family, can you talk with further family members about the things that bother you? | |||
Father | |||
Very easy | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Easy | 1.60 (1.18–2.17) ** | 0.40 (0.21–0.77) | 1.42 (0.66–3.08) |
Hard | 2.10 (1.45–3.04) ** | 1.77 (1.03–3.02) * | 1.36 (1.14–1.90) |
Very hard | 2.88 (1.86–4.47) ** | 2.02 (1.03–3.99) * | 1.20 (0.51–2.85) |
Step-father | |||
Very easy | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Easy | 1.17 (0.34–4.09) | 0.71 (0.17–2.97) | 0.60 (0.10–3.72) |
Hard | 1.41 (0.32–6.12) | 1.88 (0.48–7.29) | 1.33 (0.20–8.71) |
Very hard | 2.25 (0.63–8.08) | 2.25 (0.63–8.08) | 1.00 (0.19–5.36) |
Mother | |||
Very easy | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Easy | 0.56 (0.28–1.11) | 1.42 (0.88–2.30) | 1.02 (0.59–1.76) |
Hard | 0.79 (0.39–1.60) | 1.75 (0.82–3.74) | 0.64 (0.28–1.46) |
Very hard | 1.53 (0.72–3.28) | 2.50 (0.97–6.44) | 1.40 (0.46–4.28) |
Step-mother | |||
Very easy | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Easy | 0.30 (0.06–1.46) | 1.50 (0.20–11.2) | 5.00 (0.42–59.7) |
Hard | 0.46 (0.05–4.01) | 7.29 (1.36–39.1) | 10.0 (1.28–78.1) |
Very hard | 0.73 (0.18–2.92) | 13.9 (2.47–78.3) | 30.0 (2.22–405.9) |
My family is trying really to help me | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 1.84 (0.86–3.92) | 1.12 (0.45–2.79) | 0.61 (0.20–1.87) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 1.06 (0.45–2.51) | 0.54 (0.17–1.69) | 0.51 (0.13–2.02) |
Agree | 1.76 (0.97–3.17) | 0.29 (0.12–0.70) ** | 0.39 (0.18–0.84) * |
Absolutely agree | 0.76 (0.44–1.29) | 0.29 (0.16–0.53) ** | 0.16 (0.06–0.46) ** |
I receive from my family necessary emotional help and support | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 0.92 (0.50–1.69) | 0.85 (0.35–2.07) | 0.34 (0.11–1.03) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 2.81 (1.64–4.80) ** | 0.27 (0.06–1.22) | 0.27 (0.12–0.60) ** |
Agree | 2.31 (1.38–3.87) ** | 0.30 (0.14–0.67) ** | 0.14 (0.05–0.39) ** |
Absolutely agree | 1.91 (1.40–2.61) ** | 0.29 (0.16–0.52) ** | 0.09 (0.02–0.46) ** |
With my family, I can talk about my problems | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 0.97 (0.50–1.88) | 0.40 (0.15–1.06) | 0.41 (0.14–1.28) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 1.39 (0.70–2.77) | 0.86 (0.35–2.08) | 0.62 (0.21–1.79) |
Agree | 1.27 (0.76–2.14) | 0.27 (0.15–0.49) ** | 0.48 (0.23–0.99) * |
Absolutely agree | 0.57 (0.35–0.93) * | 0.23 (0.10–0.51) ** | 0.18 (0.07–0.45) ** |
My family is ready to help me in decision making | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 2.02 (0.93–4.40) | 0.47 (0.15–1.46) | 0.39 (0.10–1.54) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 1.43 (0.59–3.47) | 0.56 (0.18–1.73) | 0.29 (0.13–0.63) ** |
Agree | 1.89 (1.03–3.49) | 0.29 (0.13–0.65) ** | 0.23 (0.06–0.87) * |
Absolutely agree | 0.88 (0.50–1.55) | 0.25 (0.14–0.45) ** | 0.16 (0.06–0.41) ** |
Individual and Family Characteristics | Models of Cyberbullying Exposure, OR (95% CI) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Model 1: None versus at Least Once | Model 2: None versus Multiple | Model 3: at Least Once versus Multiple | |
Individual characteristics | |||
Gender | |||
Boys | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Girls | 1.63 (1.26–2.10) ** | 0.72 (0.47–1.10) | 0.44 (0.26–0.75) ** |
Age, years | |||
11–12 | 1 | \ | \ |
13–14 | 0.98 (0.13–7.54) | \ | \ |
15–17 | 2.53 (0.22–29.10) | \ | \ |
School type, grade | |||
Primary, V grade | 1 | \ | 1 |
Primary, VII grade | 2.05 (0.27–15.60) | \ | 0.57 (0.28–1.19) |
Gymnasium, I grade | 0.76 (0.07–8.78) | \ | 1.18 (0.49–2.86) |
Vocational school, I grade | 0.66 (0.06–7.53) | \ | 0.63 (0.30–1.33) |
Life satisfaction | |||
Very bad | \ | 1 | 1 |
Bad | \ | 0.41 (0.07–2.20) | 0.16 (0.01–2.41) |
Average | \ | 0.39 (0.11–1.43) | 0.13 (0.01–1.53) |
Good | \ | 0.31 (0.09–1.11) | 0.15 (0.01–1.77) |
Very good | \ | 0.37 (0.11–1.30) | 0.33 (0.03–3.88) |
Family characteristics | |||
Father’s employment | |||
Unemployed | \ | 1 | 1 |
Employed | \ | 1.11 (0.58–2.13) | 0.82 (0.37–1.82) |
Don’t know | \ | 3.15 (1.25–7.92) * | 2.91 (0.78–10.8) |
Mother’s employment | |||
Unemployed | \ | 1 | 1 |
Employed | \ | 0.92 (0.58–1.45) | 0.67 (0.38–1.20) |
Don’t know | \ | 1.14 (0.34–3.82) | 2.42 (0.19–30.50) |
Opinion on the family financial state | |||
Bad | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Average | 0.42 (0.26–0.67) ** | 0.28 (0.15–0.59) ** | 0.82 (0.33–2.04) |
Good | 0.32 (0.21–0.51) ** | 0.27 (0.14–0.54) ** | 0.72 (0.29–1.78) |
In my family, I think the important things are talked about | |||
Absolutely disagree | \ | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | \ | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Neither agree nor disagree | \ | 0.84 (0.17–4.21) | 3.98 (0.25–63.4) |
Agree | \ | 0.61 (0.12–3.00) | 1.33 (0.09–18.9) |
Absolutely agree | \ | 1.10 (0.23–5.29) | 1.78 (0.13–24.9) |
In my family, when I speak, someone listens to what I say | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | \ | \ |
Disagree | 0.82 (0.30–2.26) | \ | \ |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.66 (0.27–1.64) | \ | \ |
Agree | 0.80 (0.34–1.87) | \ | \ |
Absolutely agree | 0.77 (0.33–1.80) | \ | \ |
In my family, when I don’t understand something, we ask questions | |||
Absolutely disagree | \ | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | \ | 0.75 (0.10–5.80) | 0.13 (0.00–3.91) |
Neither agree nor disagree | \ | 0.84 (0.17–4.20) | 0.81 (0.03–25.1) |
Agree | \ | 0.42 (0.09–2.02) | 0.29 (0.01–9.10) |
Absolutely agree | \ | 0.41 (0.08–2.00) | 0.17 (0.01–5.59) |
In my family, when there is disagreement, we talk until it is resolved | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 1.06 (0.41–2,71) | 0.36 (0.07–1.70) | 0.09 (0.01–1.63) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.79 (0.32–1.95) | 0.56 (0.15–2.10) | 0.73 (0.05–11.2) |
Agree | 0.89 (0.37–2.12) | 0.45 (0.12–1.66) | 0.72 (0.04–12.0) |
Absolutely agree | 1.00 (0.42–2.39) | 0.53 (0.14–1.96) | 0.79 (0.05–13.5) |
In the family, can you talk with further family members about the things that bother you? | |||
Father | |||
Very easy | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Easy | 1.36 (0.98–1.89) | 0.52 (0.25–1.09) | 0.35 (0.15–0.80) * |
Hard | 1.07 (1.03–2.48) * | 2.26 (0.95–5.34) | 1.07 (0.47–2.44) |
Very hard | 2.16 (1.28–3.63) ** | 2.40 (1.2–4.71) * | 0.70 (0.21–2.27) |
My family is trying really to help me | |||
Absolutely disagree | \ | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | \ | 1.85 (0.36–9.51) | 4.65 (0.36–60.0) |
Neither agree nor disagree | \ | 0.90 (0.13–6.51) | 0.83 (0.05–15.2) |
Agree | \ | 0.66 (0.10–4.58) | 0.61 (0.05–7.41) |
Absolutely agree | \ | 0.85 (0.14–5.11) | 1.20 (0.11–13.3) |
I receive from my family necessary emotional help and support | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 0.30 (0.12–0.81) | 0.88 (0.20–3.90) | 0.05 (0–1.00) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 1.56 (0.77–3.13) | 0.55 (0.07–4.24) | 0.07 (0–2.32) |
Agree | 1.58 (0.79–3.10) | 0.89 (0.16–5.09) | 0.10 (0–2.69) |
Absolutely agree | 1.22 (0.83–1.83) | 1.07 (0.19–5.87) | 0.13 (0–3.49) |
With my family, I can talk about my problems | |||
Absolutely disagree | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | 0.50 (0.20–1.27) | 0.69 (0.15–3.24) | 3.58 (0.24–53.2) |
Neither agree nor disagree | 0.61 (0.26–1.41) | 2.33 (0.43–12.5) | 4.53 (0.29–69.7) |
Agree | 0.32 (0.14–0.76) * | 0.93 (0.18–4.81) | 1.92 (0.12–32.0) |
Absolutely agree | 0.31 (0.13–0.74) ** | 0.94 (0.20–4.56) | 3.68 (0.21–63.0) |
My family is ready to help me in decision making | |||
Absolutely disagree | \ | 1 | 1 |
Disagree | \ | 0.55 (0.11–2.83) | 1.41 (0.09–21.9) |
Neither agree nor disagree | \ | 0.32 (0.04–2.35) | 1.38 (0.07–28.4) |
Agree | \ | 0.44 (0.08–2.35) | 0.41 (0.03–6.59) |
Absolutely agree | \ | 0.44 (0.10–2.03) | 0.57 (0.04–9.26) |
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Rakic, L.; Santric-Milicevic, M.; Nikolic, D.; Vasic, M.; Babic, U.; Todorovic, J.; Terzic-Supic, Z.; Milenkovic, S. The Relationship between Individual and Family Characteristics and Cyberbullying Exposure in a Nationally Representative Sample of School-Aged Children Living in Serbia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147443
Rakic L, Santric-Milicevic M, Nikolic D, Vasic M, Babic U, Todorovic J, Terzic-Supic Z, Milenkovic S. The Relationship between Individual and Family Characteristics and Cyberbullying Exposure in a Nationally Representative Sample of School-Aged Children Living in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(14):7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147443
Chicago/Turabian StyleRakic, Ljiljana, Milena Santric-Milicevic, Dejan Nikolic, Milena Vasic, Uros Babic, Jovana Todorovic, Zorica Terzic-Supic, and Sanja Milenkovic. 2021. "The Relationship between Individual and Family Characteristics and Cyberbullying Exposure in a Nationally Representative Sample of School-Aged Children Living in Serbia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147443
APA StyleRakic, L., Santric-Milicevic, M., Nikolic, D., Vasic, M., Babic, U., Todorovic, J., Terzic-Supic, Z., & Milenkovic, S. (2021). The Relationship between Individual and Family Characteristics and Cyberbullying Exposure in a Nationally Representative Sample of School-Aged Children Living in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(14), 7443. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147443