Household Income and Psychological Distress: Exploring Women’s Paid and Unpaid Work as Mediators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Participants
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Dependent Variable
2.2.2. Independent Variables
2.3. Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
The first set of questions that you will be asked on this survey are about what you think and feel about the family work that you do. We are defining family work as any “unpaid work done to maintain family members and/or a home” [79]. Family work includes that performed in and around the household including housework, yard work, gardening, and house maintenance. Family work also includes work related to “running the household” such as time spent planning meals, scheduling appointments for household members as well as the budgetary management of the home. Another important aspect of family work is that which focuses on the physical and/or emotional aspects of caregiving. Physical aspects include parenting of children (i.e., assisting with homework, driving children to activities, diapering, etc.), as well as elder care. Emotional aspects consist of work directed at meeting others’ emotional needs, improving their well-being, and maintaining harmony. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with various statements concerning your family work.
Demands |
I always feel pressured for time |
It never seems to be done |
It is a constant juggling act |
I never seem to have enough time to complete what I need to do |
I feel like I am being pulled in a million directions |
There are a lot of conflicting demands on my time |
I usually have to multitask |
Autonomy |
I decide when to do it |
I control the speed at which I work |
I establish plans for my own work |
I am free to decide what work I will do |
I decide on how much effort to put into it |
Equity |
The work is fairly divided up between me and my partner |
I do too much of it compared to other family members |
I wish my partner would contribute more |
Responsibilities are not fairly divided in our household |
I am satisfied with how family members share the work |
I usually end up doing most of the work myself |
I usually do most of the work that nobody else wants to do |
Social resources |
I can count on extended family to help if needed |
I can count on friends to help if needed |
I can rely if needed on support from within my community/neighborhood |
I can count on people outside my household to provided unpaid assistance |
Caregiving rewards For the last five statements, please focus specifically on your CAREGIVING responsibilities (rather than family work in general) |
When it comes to my caregiving work… I enjoy the work |
I find the work fulfilling |
I find the work interesting |
I feel good about it because I am helping the people I love |
I feel appreciated by my loved ones for the work I do |
Mediators | a | b | Total Effect c | Direct Effect c’ | Indirect Effect a x b (95%CI) 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demands | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.65 | 2.96 *** | 2.69 *** | 0.27 (−0.43–0.52) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.64 | 1.66 ** | 1.39 * | 0.27 (−0.21–0.80) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.08 | 0.42 *** | 0.35 | 0.31 | 0.03 (−0.44–0.52) |
Autonomy | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.03 | 3.03 *** | 3.04 *** | −0.01 (−0.45–0.40) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.02 | 1.51 * | 1.52 * | −0.01 (−0.40–0.39) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.13 | −0.51 *** | 0.24 | 0.31 | −0.07 (−0.44–0.30) |
Equity | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −1.72 * | 2.94 *** | 2.39 *** | 0.55 (9.11–1.03) * | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −1.74 ** | 1.69 ** | 1.13 | 0.55 (0.15–0.99) * | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.02 | −0.32 *** | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.01 (−0.40–0.40) |
Social resources | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.30 | 3.02 *** | 3.16 *** | −0.14 (−0.57–0.26) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.25 | 1.71 ** | 1.83 ** | −0.12 (−0.58–0.17) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.40 | −0.48 *** | 0.37 | 0.56 | −0.19 (−0.58–0.18) |
Caregiving rewards | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.16 | 2.97 *** | 2.90 *** | 0.08 (−0.29–0.44) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.50 | 1.59 * | 1.35 * | 0.24 (−0.11–0.60) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.04 | −0.48 ** | 0.28 | 0.26 | 0.02 (−0.33–0.33) |
Job demands | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.32 | 3.00 *** | 2.91 *** | 0.09 (−0.22–0.46) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.35 | 1.63 ** | 1.53 * | 0.09 (−0.21–0.42) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.39 | 0.27 *** | 0.26 | 0.37 | −0.11 (−0.40–0.16) |
Job control | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −2.91 *** | 3.00 *** | 2.67 *** | 0.33 (0.04–0.71) * | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −1.59 ** | 1.63 * | 1.45 * | 0.18 (0.02–0.41) * | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −1.21 * | −0.11 * | 0.26 | 0.12 | 0.14 (0.004–0.34) * |
Work-to-family conflict | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 1.37 ** | 3.00 ** | 1.78 ** | 1.22 (0.56–1.92) * | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.71 * | 1.63 * | 1.00 | 0.63 (0.08–1.22) * | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.25 | 0.89 *** | 0.26 | 0.04 | 0.22 (−0.34–0.78) |
Family-to-work conflict | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.22 | 3.00 *** | 2.81 *** | 0.19 (−0.32–0.70) | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 0.16 | 1.63 ** | 1.50 ** | 0.14 (−0.32–0.61) | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | −0.18 | 0.85 *** | 0.26 | 0.42 | −0.15 (−0.63–0.33) |
Material deprivation | |||||
≤CAD 59,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 9.92 *** | 3.00 *** | 0.34 | 2.66 (1.94–3.42) * | |
CAD 60,000–89,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 8.21 *** | 1.63 * | −0.57 | 2.20 (1.54–2.93) * | |
CAD 90,000–119,999 vs. CAD 120,000+ | 3.70 *** | 0.27 *** | 0.26 | −0.73 | 0.99 (0.55–1.48) * |
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Variables | Number | % or Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|
Mothers’ age (yrs) | 498 | 39.92 (7.21) |
Number of children | ||
1 child | 189 | 36.9 |
2 children | 234 | 45.7 |
3 or more children | 86 | 16.8 |
Child 5 years of age or younger in household | ||
No | 335 | 65.4 |
Yes | 177 | 34.6 |
Weekly paid work hours | ||
31 h or less | 137 | 26.8 |
32–40 h | 262 | 51.2 |
41 h or more | 113 | 22.1 |
Household income (annual) | ||
≤ CAD59,999 | 92 | 18.0 |
CAD60,000– CAD89,999 | 102 | 20.5 |
CAD90,000– CAD119,999 | 130 | 26.2 |
CAD120,000+ | 119 | 23.4 |
Family work quality | ||
Demands | 506 | 22.99 (4.32) |
Autonomy | 509 | 16.07 (2.86) |
Equity | 506 | 14.96 (4.90) |
Social resources | 497 | 8.55 (3.05) |
Caregiving rewards | 507 | 16.44 (2.79) |
Paid work quality | ||
Demands | 512 | 25.00 (4.29) |
Decision latitude | 512 | 26.82 (4.41) |
Work–family interface | ||
Work-to-family conflict | 512 | 7.82 (2.49) |
Family-to-work conflict | 512 | 7.10 (2.18) |
Material deprivation | 512 | 22.39 (7.34) |
Psychological distress | 512 | 12.39 (4.65) |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Demands | 1 | −0.22 ** | −0.43 ** | −0.21 ** | −0.19 ** | 0.36 ** | −0.01 | 0.46 ** | 0.40 ** | 0.25 ** | 0.38 ** |
2. Autonomy | 1 | 0.14 ** | 0.23 ** | 0.26 ** | −0.04 | 0.11 * | −0.24 ** | −0.29 ** | −0.19 ** | −0.29 ** | |
3. Equity | 1 | 0.22 ** | 0.36 ** | −0.13 ** | 0.13 ** | −0.26 ** | −0.32 ** | −0.26 ** | −0.32 ** | ||
4. Social Resources | 1 | 0.21 ** | −0.11 * | 0.04 | −0.26 ** | −0.14 ** | −0.17 ** | −0.28 ** | |||
5. Caregiving Rewards | 1 | 0.03 | 0.15 ** | −0.15 ** | −0.25 ** | −0.14 ** | −0.25 ** | ||||
6. Job Demands | 1 | 0.18 ** | 0.38 ** | 0.14 ** | 0.17 ** | 0.20 ** | |||||
7. Job Control | 1 | −0.13 ** | −0.12 ** | −0.24 ** | −0.16 ** | ||||||
8. Work-to-Family Conflict | 1 | 0.53 ** | 0.36 ** | 0.47 ** | |||||||
9. Family-to-Work Conflict | 1 | 0.29 ** | 0.41 ** | ||||||||
10. Material Deprivation | 1 | 0.40 ** | |||||||||
11. Psychological Distress | 1 |
Variables | ≤CAD 59,999 | CAD60,000– CAD89,999 | CAD90,000– CAD119,999 | CAD120,000+ | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Psychological distress | 14.31 (0.47) | 12.98 (0.45) | 11.86 (0.40) | 11.44 (0.42) | <0.001 |
Material deprivation | 27.35 (0.68) | 25.68 (0.64) | 21.31 (0.57) | 17.41 (0.60) | <0.001 |
Family work quality | |||||
Demands | 23.43 (0.45) | 23.41 (0.43) | 22.85 (0.38) | 22.80 (0.40) | 0.57 |
Autonomy | 15.93 (0.31) | 15.92 (0.29) | 16.02 (0.26) | 15.89 (0.27) | 0.99 |
Equity | 14.20 (0.51) | 14.16 (0.48) | 15.75 (0.43) | 15.90 (0.46) | 0.009 |
Social resources | 8.61 (0.32) | 8.55 (0.30) | 8.59 (0.27) | 8.28 (0.28) | 0.84 |
Caregiving rewards | 16.51 (0.29) | 16.16 (0.28) | 16.53 (0.24) | 16.64 (0.26) | 0.62 |
Job demands | 25.40 (0.44) | 25.42 (0.41) | 24.68 (0.37) | 25.10 (0.39) | 0.50 |
Job control | 25.25 (0.44) | 26.59 (0.42) | 27.14 (0.37) | 28.30 (0.39) | <0.001 |
Work-to-family conflict | 8.70 (0.26) | 8.05 (0.24) | 7.67 (0.22) | 7.36 (0.23) | 0.001 |
Family-to-work conflict | 7.29 (0.23) | 7.23 (0.22) | 6.91 (0.19) | 7.07 (0.20) | 0.55 |
Relative Indirect Effect | (95%CI) | Partially Standardized Relative Indirect Effect | (95%CI) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
≤CAD 59,000 vs. CAD120,000+ | ||||
Material deprivation | 1.45 (0.35) | 0.79–2.18 * | 0.31 (0.07) | 0.17–0.47 * |
Equity | 0.30 (0.14) | 0.06–0.61 * | 0.07 (0.03) | 0.01–0.13 * |
Work–family conflict | 0.81 (0.25) | 0.35–1.33 * | 0.18 (0.05) | 0.08–0.29 * |
Job control | 0.04 (0.13) | −0.21–0.32 | 0.009 (0.03) | −0.05–0.07 |
CAD60,000–89,999 vs. CAD120,000+ | ||||
Material deprivation | 1.21 (0.30) | 0.64–1.85 * | 0.26 (0.07) | 0.14–0.40 * |
Equity in domestic labor | 0.31 (0.13) | 0.08–0.59 * | 0.07 (0.03) | 0.02–0.13 * |
Work–family conflict | 0.43 (0.22) | 0.04–0.88 * | 0.09 (0.05) | 0.01–0.19 * |
Job control | 0.04 (0.13) | −0.13–0.17 | 0.005 (0.02) | −0.03–0.04 |
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Janzen, B.; Hellsten, L.-A. Household Income and Psychological Distress: Exploring Women’s Paid and Unpaid Work as Mediators. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126402
Janzen B, Hellsten L-A. Household Income and Psychological Distress: Exploring Women’s Paid and Unpaid Work as Mediators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(12):6402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126402
Chicago/Turabian StyleJanzen, Bonnie, and Laurie-Ann Hellsten. 2021. "Household Income and Psychological Distress: Exploring Women’s Paid and Unpaid Work as Mediators" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 12: 6402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126402