Sugar-Sweetened and Diet Beverage Consumption in Philadelphia One Year after the Beverage Tax
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baseline Characteristics | Total | Philly | Non-Philly |
---|---|---|---|
N = 515 | N = 357 | N = 158 | |
Age, years, n (%) | |||
18 to 20 | 30 (5.8) | 21 (5.9) | 9 (5.7) |
21 to 34 | 124 (24.1) | 87 (24.4) | 37 (23.4) |
35 to 49 | 142 (27.6) | 99 (27.7) | 43 (27.2) |
50 to 64 | 219 (42.5) | 150 (42.0) | 69 (43.7) |
Male, n (%) | 253 (49.1) | 167 (46.8) | 86 (54.4) |
Race/ethnicity, n (%) | |||
Hispanic | 31 (6.0) | 21 (5.9) | 10 (6.3) |
Black | 186 (36.1) | 149 (41.7) | 37 (23.4) |
White | 269 (52.2) | 168 (47.1) | 101 (63.9) |
Other | 29 (5.6) | 19 (5.3) | 10 (6.3) |
Household income per capita, n (%) | |||
>$50,000 | 98 (19.0) | 60 (16.8) | 38 (24.1) |
$30,001–$50,000 | 152 (29.5) | 105 (29.4) | 47 (29.7) |
$15,001–$30,000 | 163 (31.7) | 112 (31.4) | 51 (32.3) |
≤$15,000 | 102 (19.8) | 80 (22.4) | 22 (13.9) |
Household income per capita, mean (STD) | 33700 (23900) | 32500 (23800) | 36700 (23900) |
Highest education, n (%) | |||
High school/GED | 144 (28.0) | 105 (29.4) | 39 (24.7) |
Technical school/2 year college | 126 (24.5) | 89 (24.9) | 37 (23.4) |
4 year college | 126 (24.5) | 85 (23.8) | 41 (25.9) |
Graduate school | 119 (23.1) | 78 (21.8) | 41 (25.9) |
BMI category, n (%) | |||
<25 (underweight 2 or normal) | 205 (39.8) | 144 (40.3) | 61 (38.6) |
≥25–<30 (overweight) | 162 (31.5) | 106 (29.7) | 56 (35.4) |
≥30 (obese) | 148 (28.7) | 107 (30.0) | 41 (25.9) |
BMI, mean (STD) | 28.0 (7.2) | 28.0 (7.0) | 27.9 (7.5) |
Self-rated health, n (%) | |||
Poor or fair | 71 (13.8) | 53 (14.8) | 18 (11.4) |
Good, very good, excellent | 444 (86.2) | 304 (85.2) | 140 (88.6) |
Chronic conditions, n (%) 3 | 208 (40.4) | 137 (38.4) | 71 (44.9) |
Currently smoking, n (%) | 80 (15.5) | 53 (14.8) | 27 (17.1) |
Alcohol use 4, n (%) | |||
Higher | 122 (23.7) | 84 (23.5) | 38 (24.1) |
Lower | 206 (40.0) | 136 (38.1) | 70 (44.3) |
None | 157 (30.5) | 116 (32.5) | 41 (25.9) |
Younger than 21 years old 4 | 30 (5.8) | 21 (5.9) | 9 (5.7) |
Reached by cell phone, n (%) | 341 (66.2) | 224 (62.7) | 117 (74.1) |
Living near Philly border at baseline 5, n (%) | 165 (32.0) | 155 (43.4) | 10 (6.3) |
SSB or diet purchase location at baseline | |||
Participants who were asked | 296 (57.5) | 245 (68.6) | 51 (32.3) |
Purchased only in Philly | 146 (28.3) | 145 (40.6) | 1 (0.6) |
Purchased only outside of Philly | 76 (14.8) | 37 (10.4) | 39 (24.7) |
Purchased in and outside of Philly | 74 (14.4) | 63 (17.6) | 11 (7.0) |
Participants who were not asked 6 | 219 (42.5) | 112 (31.4) | 107 (67.7) |
SSB or diet purchase location at follow-up | |||
Participants who were asked | 324 (62.9) | 254 (71.1) | 70 (44.3) |
Purchased only in Philly | 107 (20.8) | 107 (30.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Purchased only outside of Philly | 108 (21.0) | 65 (18.2) | 43 (27.2) |
Purchased in and outside of Philly | 109 (21.2) | 82 (23.0) | 27 (17.1) |
Participants who were not asked 6 | 191 (37.1) | 103 (28.9) | 88 (55.7) |
Week of baseline survey, n (%) | |||
1 | 164 (31.8) | 117 (32.8) | 47 (29.7) |
2 | 60 (11.7) | 33 (9.2) | 27 (17.1) |
3 | 49 (9.5) | 31 (8.7) | 18 (11.4) |
4 | 84 (16.3) | 56 (15.7) | 28 (17.7) |
5 | 109 (21.2) | 78 (21.8) | 31 (19.6) |
6 | 49 (9.5) | 42 (11.8) | 7 (4.4) |
Month of survey, n (%) | |||
Baseline Dec, follow-up Dec | 183 (35.5) | 121 (33.9) | 62 (39.2) |
Baseline Dec, follow-up Jan | 149 (28.9) | 98 (27.5) | 51 (32.3) |
Baseline Jan, follow-up Jan | 183 (35.5) | 138 (38.7) | 45 (28.5) |
Beverage | Philly (Tax) N = 357 | p-Value 1 | Non-Philly (no Tax) N = 158 | p-Value 1 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Follow-Up | Baseline | Follow-Up | ||||
A. Total 30-day consumption frequency | |||||||
Mean (STD) | |||||||
Bottled water | 39.7 (107.7) | 45.8 (124.7) | 0.476 | 30.9 (53.8) | 50.9 (198.1) | 0.186 | |
Sugar sweetened beverage 2 | 22.6 (40.5) | 19.8 (32.2) | 0.228 | 17.8 (34.7) | 14.9 (24.4) | 0.251 | |
Regular soda | 7.8 (18.1) | 7.7 (15.6) | 0.934 | 9.2 (20.9) | 7.6 (16.3) | 0.325 | |
Regular fruit beverage | 10.7 (27.3) | 9.4 (20.9) | 0.423 | 6.3 (22.1) | 4.4 (9.9) | 0.265 | |
Regular energy beverage | 4.1 (15.6) | 2.7 (10.0) | 0.108 | 2.3 (8.0) | 3.0 (8.0) | 0.223 | |
Diet beverage 2 | 8.5 (21.5) | 10.1 (26.6) | 0.291 | 12.6 (35.5) | 13.0 (35.8) | 0.862 | |
Diet soda | 4.8 (14.9) | 4.4 (13.1) | 0.619 | 8.5 (24.4) | 8.6 (29.2) | 0.964 | |
Diet fruit beverage | 2.3 (10.4) | 3.8 (19.8) | 0.161 | 2.3 (9.4) | 2.5 (12.3) | 0.840 | |
Diet energy beverage | 1.5 (6.2) | 1.8 (9.4) | 0.540 | 1.8 (12.3) | 1.9 (9.5) | 0.866 | |
Median (range 25th-75th) | |||||||
Bottled water | 10.0 (0.0, 60.0) | 20.0 (0.0, 60.0) | 5.0 (0.0, 30.0) | 8.0 (0.0, 60.0) | |||
SSB | 6.0 (0.0, 28.0) | 8.0 (0.0, 24.0) | 4.0 (0.0, 20.0) | 6.0 (1.0, 20.0) | |||
Diet beverage | 0.0 (0.0, 4.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 4.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 6.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 8.0) | |||
B. Total 30-day consumption in ounces | |||||||
Mean (STD) | |||||||
Bottled water | 793.8 (2153.4) | 915.2 (2494.5) | 0.476 | 618.7 (1076.5) | 1018.1 (3961.1) | 0.186 | |
Sugar sweetened beverage 2 | 357.3 (753.3) | 310.8 (533.3) | 0.264 | 284.6 (627.5) | 232.1 (459.1) | 0.230 | |
Regular soda | 115.8 (298.9) | 130.3 (308.0) | 0.438 | 150.6 (349.8) | 122.4 (346.3) | 0.313 | |
Regular fruit beverage | 176.5 (561.0) | 135.6 (297.6) | 0.181 | 94.3 (406.9) | 61.5 (139.7) | 0.309 | |
Regular energy beverage | 65.0 (226.6) | 44.9 (153.8) | 0.133 | 39.7 (169.4) | 48.2 (121.4) | 0.470 | |
Diet beverage 2 | 120.8 (308.6) | 141.6 (347.4) | 0.256 | 217.3 (678.6) | 197.4 (508.9) | 0.679 | |
Diet soda | 61.7 (189.8) | 63.6 (181.1) | 0.835 | 142.3 (536.5) | 124.5 (383.9) | 0.681 | |
Diet fruit beverage | 31.6 (142.4) | 47.3 (230.0) | 0.199 | 42.0 (199.1) | 35.1 (192.4) | 0.686 | |
Diet energy beverage | 27.4 (132.3) | 30.7 (140.5) | 0.708 | 33.0 (245.7) | 37.7 (195.0) | 0.798 | |
Median (range 25th-75th) | |||||||
Bottled water | 200.0 (0.0, 1200.0) | 400.0 (0.0, 1200.0) | 100.0 (0.0, 600.0) | 160.0 (0.0, 1200.0) | |||
SSB | 80.0 (0.0, 336.0) | 96.0 (0.0, 340.0) | 70.0 (0.0, 300.0) | 80.0 (20.0, 264.0) | |||
Diet beverage | 0.0 (0.0, 60.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 80.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 90.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 120.0) |
Type of Beverage | Philly (Tax) | Non-Philly (No Tax) | Philly (Tax) | Non-Philly (No Tax) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 357 | N = 158 | N = 357 | N = 158 | ||
A-i. Within-person changes in 30-day consumption frequency | B-i. Within person changes in 30-day consumption ounces | ||||
Bottled water | Mean (STD) | 6.1 (160.6) | 20.0 (188.8) | 121.3 (3211.8) | 399.4 (3775.1) |
SSB | Mean (STD) | −2.8 (43.9) | −2.9 (31.5) | −46.5 (785.9) | −52.5 (547.8) |
Diet beverage | Mean (STD) | 1.5 (26.9) | 0.5 (33.5) | 20.9 (346.6) | −19.9 (603.1) |
Bottled water | Median (25th-75th) | 0.0 (−12.0, 27.0) | 0.0 (−10.0, 12.0) | 0.0 (−240.0, 540.0) | 0.0 (−200.0, 240.0) |
SSB | Median (25th-75th) | 0.0 (−7.0, 5.0) | 0.0 (−4.0, 4.0) | 0.0 (−72.0, 80.0) | 0.0 (−50.0, 80.0) |
Diet beverage | Median (25th-75th) | 0.0 (0.0, 0.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 1.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 0.0) | 0.0 (0.0, 20.0) |
A-ii. Within-person frequency changed | B-ii. Within-person ounces changed | ||||
Bottled water | Decrease | 119 (33.3%) | 58 (36.7%) | 119 (33.3%) | 58 (36.7%) |
No change | 93 (26.1%) | 38 (24.1%) | 93 (26.1%) | 38 (24.1%) | |
Increase | 145 (40.6%) | 62 (39.2%) | 145 (40.6%) | 62 (39.2%) | |
SSB | Decrease | 140 (39.2%) | 53 (33.5%) | 140 (39.2%) | 53 (33.5%) |
No change | 78 (21.8%) | 37 (23.4%) | 76 (21.3%) | 34 (21.5%) | |
Increase | 139 (38.9%) | 68 (43.0%) | 141 (39.5%) | 71 (44.9%) | |
Diet beverage | Decrease | 74 (20.7%) | 30 (19.0%) | 74 (20.7%) | 32 (20.3%) |
No change | 201 (56.3%) | 88 (55.7%) | 198 (55.5%) | 84 (53.2%) | |
Increase | 82 (23.0%) | 40 (25.3%) | 85 (23.8%) | 42 (26.6%) |
A. Change in Beverage Consumption Volume or Frequency in 12 Months after the Tax in Philadelphia Relative to that of the Comparison Cities (Philly vs. Non-Philly) | ||||||
Mean Change in Frequency (Continuous) | 95% CI | p-Value | Mean Change in Ounces (Continuous) | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Bottled water | −15.79 | −51.37 to 19.79 | 0.384 | −315.81 | −1027.38 to 395.76 | 0.384 |
SSB | −3.03 | −11.43 to 5.38 | 0.479 | −51.65 | −202.32 to 99.02 | 0.501 |
Diet beverage | 0.40 | −5.69 to 6.50 | 0.897 | 21.62 | −70.94 to 114.17 | 0.646 |
B. Odds Ratio of being in the Specified Category vs. no Change 12 Months after the Tax in Philadelphia Relative to that of the Comparison Cities (Philly vs. Non-Philly) | ||||||
Change in Frequency (Increase/Decrease) | 95% CI | p-Value | Change in Ounces (Increase/Decrease) | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Bottled water | ||||||
Decrease | 0.77 | 0.44 to 1.35 | 0.365 | 0.77 | 0.44 to 1.35 | 0.365 |
Increase | 0.92 | 0.53 to 1.59 | 0.769 | 0.92 | 0.53 to 1.59 | 0.769 |
SSB | ||||||
Decrease | 1.15 | 0.62 to 2.12 | 0.653 | 1.01 | 0.54 to 1.87 | 0.987 |
Increase | 0.74 | 0.41 to 1.33 | 0.315 | 0.62 | 0.34 to 1.12 | 0.113 |
Diet beverage | ||||||
Decrease | 1.26 | 0.72 to 2.19 | 0.423 | 1.14 | 0.66 to 1.99 | 0.633 |
Increase | 0.97 | 0.57 to 1.64 | 0.908 | 0.90 | 0.54 to 1.52 | 0.699 |
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Zhong, Y.; Auchincloss, A.H.; Lee, B.K.; McKenna, R.M.; Langellier, B.A. Sugar-Sweetened and Diet Beverage Consumption in Philadelphia One Year after the Beverage Tax. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041336
Zhong Y, Auchincloss AH, Lee BK, McKenna RM, Langellier BA. Sugar-Sweetened and Diet Beverage Consumption in Philadelphia One Year after the Beverage Tax. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(4):1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041336
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhong, Yichen, Amy H. Auchincloss, Brian K. Lee, Ryan M. McKenna, and Brent A. Langellier. 2020. "Sugar-Sweetened and Diet Beverage Consumption in Philadelphia One Year after the Beverage Tax" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4: 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041336
APA StyleZhong, Y., Auchincloss, A. H., Lee, B. K., McKenna, R. M., & Langellier, B. A. (2020). Sugar-Sweetened and Diet Beverage Consumption in Philadelphia One Year after the Beverage Tax. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041336