Urban Emotion Sensing Beyond ‘Affective Capture’: Advancing Critical Interdisciplinary Methods
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodological Approach
2.1. Epistemological Challenges of Defining and Measuring Urban Emotions
2.2. Location
2.3. Study Participants
2.4. Ethical Approval Process
2.5. Data Collection
2.5.1. Biosensing
2.5.2. Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) Diary
2.5.3. Stress and Wellbeing Surveys
2.5.4. Qualitative Interviews
2.6. Data Analysis Methods
2.6.1. Biosensing Data—Developing an Algorithm to Identify ‘Moments of Stress’
2.6.2. EMA Diary and Surveys—Descriptive Statistical Analysis
2.6.3. Qualitative Interviews—Thematic Analysis
2.7. Data Integration
3. Results
3.1. Psychometric Stress, Wellbeing and Commute Duration/Type
3.2. Spatial and Temporal Differences in Urban Stress Experiences
3.3. Experiences of Embodied Stress
3.3.1. Participant Reflections on the Experimental Study and Measurement
“I don’t know if you want to look at the wording. Because sometimes—[long pause] I know I’m going, and I’ve got adrenaline going, and the results might look like oh you look stressed because your readings are—so I put it I’m not necessarily stressed, as in er, er, er. Stress as in—I’m not stressed, I’m [long pause] alert. And I’ll tick that box at the time.” (Birmingham Participant 10, female, age 30–34).
“There were times when I was, like, oh I’m a bit tired now but there wasn’t an option of ‘tired’ and there was a time when I was a bit annoyed and there wasn’t, you know, ‘irritated’ or ‘annoyed’ or that kind of thing, but I suppose it’s very difficult to narrow down exactly what words you’re going to put on there.” (Birmingham Participant 3, female, age 35–40).
“My idea of stress is the sort of feelings that you get where everything’s getting at you and you’re just getting more—for me I get wound up, I get like angry. Stress is always when people are getting pushed at work where they can’t cope. Stress is something that affects how you make decisions and work in a sort of irrational, makes people act in an irrational method, irrational manner because of the emotions they start feelings because of the external factors, that someone is pushing onto them, that they can’t control or can’t alleviate.” (Birmingham Participant 17, male, age 25–30).
3.3.2. Self-Tracking
“…we’re kind of chasing our own tails now. Because you can do everything instantly. Which is great, on the doing end. But on the receiving end, and the feedback end, they want that instantly as well. So we’re doing things faster, and making ourselves do things faster. So we’re not—we haven’t really won much have we?” (Birmingham Participant 10, female, age 30–34).
3.3.3. Journey Description
3.3.4. Causes of Stress
“…there is a constant stress because of the ability to be an adequate mother to my daughter and the time—so in the week there’s very limited time, you know, it’s a case of, it’s very prescriptive.” (Birmingham Participant 16, female, age 35–44.)
“There seems to be a shift from people being a lot more relaxed to more stressed. Almost like people have become more stressed about money and also with the uncertainties that have been going on in politics at the moment it has increased people’s stress levels because are unsure about jobs, food, fuel and all these things that people don’t have control over.” (Birmingham Participant 14, female, age 50–54.)
“I think people—I mean, things like food banks. People are going to go hungry again, which I can’t remember, I don’t think people did really in my lifetime, but in my parents’ lifetime they could remember when people went hungry. I think a lot of people are going to find their life is very much worsened. And I think that’s going to impact on my life because I’m going to notice that. I don’t like seeing a lot of poor people. I don’t like seeing people having what is obviously a poor quality of life. I find it very dep-, I thought that when I was a child and we used to go in from the suburbs where we lived, through the inner-city area in Manchester, and you could see people who were obviously poor. So I do find that depressing and it does impact—and stressful. It makes me worry for the future” (Birmingham Participant 5, female, age 65–70).
3.3.5. Limitations
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Participant Details | Mean (SD)/N (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Birmingham | Salzburg | All | ||
# Participants | 22 | 9 | 31 | |
Gender | Male | 3 (14%) | 8 (89%) | 11 (35%) |
Female | 19 (86%) | 1 (11%) | 20 (65%) | |
Age (years) | 42.7 (11.3) | 31.3 (8.9) | 39.4 (11.7) | |
Marital Status | Cohabiting | 7 (32%) | 4 (50%) | 11 (37%) |
Married | 8 (36%) | 3 (38%) | 11 (37%) | |
Single | 7 (32%) | 1 (13%) | 8 (27%) | |
Education level | High School | 6 (27%) | 0 (0%) | 6 (19%) |
Degree | 11 (50%) | 5 (56%) | 16 (52%) | |
Postgraduate | 5 (23%) | 4 (44%) | 9 (29%) | |
Job Satisfaction | V. Satisfied | 5 (23%) | 5 (56%) | 10 (32%) |
Satisfied | 14 (64%) | 4 (44%) | 18 (58%) | |
Neutral | 2 (9%) | 0 (0%) | 2 (6%) | |
Unsatisfied | 1 (5%) | 0 (0%) | 1 (3%) | |
Duration of current employment | <2 years | 5 (23%) | 4 (44%) | 9 (29%) |
2–5 years | 7 (32%) | 2 (22%) | 9 (29%) | |
6–10 years | 4 (18%) | 1 (11%) | 5 (16%) | |
>10 years | 6 (27%) | 2 (22%) | 8 (26%) | |
Commute mode | Car | 14 (48%) | 0 (0%) | 14 (35%) |
Cycle/Walk | 0 (0%) | 6 (55%) | 6 (15%) | |
Train/Bus | 8 (28%) | 3 (27%) | 11 (28%) | |
Mixed | 7 (24%) | 2 (18%) | 9 (23%) | |
Commute duration | >15 min | 0 (0%) | 1 (11%) | 1 (3%) |
15–30 min | 10 (45%) | 3 (33%) | 13 (42%) | |
30–45 min | 5 (23%) | 5 (56%) | 10 (32%) | |
45–60 min | 4 (18%) | 0 (0%) | 4 (13%) | |
>60 min | 3 (14%) | 0 (0%) | 3 (10%) |
Psychometric Survey | Domains | Mean (SD) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Birmingham | Salzburg | All | ||
Mean WHOQOL scores | Physical Health | 65.2 (9.1) | 74.5 (9.1) | 67.9 (10.0) |
Psychological | 69.0 (12.8) | 80 (11.6) | 72.2 (13.3) | |
Social Relationships | 78.0 (11.9) | 77.8 (13.3) | 77.8 (12.1) | |
Environment | 75.1 (10.0) | 83.6(9.4) | 77.5 (10.4) | |
TOTAL | 71.8 (7.3) | 78.9 (7.5) | 73.9 (7.9) | |
Mean PSS score | 17.1 (5.0%) | 11.5 (5.7) | 15.5 (5.7) |
Commute Type | N | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|
Cycle | 3 | 9.67 | 7.02 |
Bus | 2 | 17.50 | 2.12 |
Train | 3 | 15.33 | 2.89 |
Car | 12 | 19.17 | 4.82 |
Combined | 8 | 13.75 | 4.13 |
Commute Type | N | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|
Cycle | 3 | 83.00 | 10.82 |
Bus | 2 | 69.75 | 3.18 |
Train | 3 | 76.75 | 5.65 |
Car | 12 | 69.23 | 6.48 |
Combined | 8 | 74.84 | 7.16 |
Thematic Code | Thematic Sub-Codes | Data Frequency | Summary of Data Examples |
---|---|---|---|
experimental study | (reflections of measurement of stress/emotions, the equipment and surveys, and of participating in the study) | 59 | Thought it would make me late for work; felt like the world’s ugliest FitBit/a tag for offenders (self-conscious); worries about how the wristband worked; lights kept flashing; not wanting to be honest with the food diary; worries that my data won’t be that useful; some people can hide their emotions; glad to get rid of the wristband; diaries are pretty accurate; emotions can be measured—sweat, pulse, going red; emotions are physical and independent from other bodily systems; easy, straightforward and quick processes; stress is a spectrum and depends on the person; I was aware of what might show on the wristband; too tight—flashes down my shoulder; wording of stress is ambiguous; the right words for my feelings weren’t there as options; some people are good at assessing their stress and others not at all; sometimes forgot to fill in diary every hour; can have different feelings during an hour; stress is a personal perception; I was just ticking the same thing each time; wasn’t sure what the questions were driving at; I don’t think stress and emotions can be measured just by people answering surveys; people may misinterpret questions or interpret words differently; maybe I do get stressed but just internalise it so answers may be different; everyone has their own threshold of stress; I like getting data about myself; I think I had it on upside down; I didn’t realise I was having such a crappy day until I filled that survey in; wanted to contribute to research; I never feel those tick boxes can capture anything very effectively |
Health | - | 9 | |
Home | activities at home physical environment at home relationships (at home) stressors at home | 6 6 23 16 | Partner suffering redundancy; caring for elderly parents; relationship ending; childcare worried; caring for children; partner in drug treatment programme; bereavement; wanting to move away closer to family; lack of time; lack of head space; tiredness; no free weekends; feeling of moaning at partner; ill-health of friends; lack of social support; own impatience; lack of time together as a family. |
Journey description | calming or pleasant journey ideal journey nature spaces noticing, attention on journey people, relationships on journey stressors on journey traffic accident | 21 37 23 35 34 43 11 | Routes blocked; traffic jams; junctions onto main roads; worries about hitting cyclists; pinch points; bad drivers; badly planned junctions; lots of traffic; bins in the way; lack of parking; taxi drivers; lack of seats on train; funneling or rail passengers feeling like ‘cattle’; irritating passengers; noise; ice on roads/pavements; delays and cancellations; feeling of Russian roulette on the roads; children in the car; overcrowded trains/buses; buses that never come; feeling rammed in, pushing; being (late and) hungry; bad weather |
Politics | - | 10 | |
Self-tracking | - | 5 | |
Stress | causes of stress coping with stress embodiment experience of stress meaning of stress Personality (effects on stress) | 22 52 36 43 35 11 | Tiredness; finances; personal relationships; politics and economic crisis; family illness/situations; big things; pre-existing anxieties; excessive workload; irritating or incompetent people; terrorism; Brexit; global wars; levels of poverty in society; hate crimes; lack of shared rules in society; looking after children; lack of social contact; heat; deadlines; traffic; lack of sleep; trying new things; things one can’t control Both negative and motivating, primeval response; damaging to health; feelings of anxiety; being out of control/a lack of control; headaches and physical symptoms; being in an unwanted position; having a lot on your plate; struggling to cope with a situation; interference in your life; increased heart rate; feeling squished (in time and space); time pressure; adrenaline; alert; on the knife edge; not thinking clearly; conflicting demands; (muscle) tension; feeling pushed out; irritation; wound up; anger; making irrational decisions; being overwhelmed; holding you back; palpitations; hair falling out; lack of concentration; joint pain; too much to do; pre-occupation with negative thoughts; lack of time; pressure |
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Pykett, J.; Chrisinger, B.W.; Kyriakou, K.; Osborne, T.; Resch, B.; Stathi, A.; Whittaker, A.C. Urban Emotion Sensing Beyond ‘Affective Capture’: Advancing Critical Interdisciplinary Methods. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9003. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239003
Pykett J, Chrisinger BW, Kyriakou K, Osborne T, Resch B, Stathi A, Whittaker AC. Urban Emotion Sensing Beyond ‘Affective Capture’: Advancing Critical Interdisciplinary Methods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(23):9003. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239003
Chicago/Turabian StylePykett, Jessica, Benjamin W. Chrisinger, Kalliopi Kyriakou, Tess Osborne, Bernd Resch, Afroditi Stathi, and Anna C. Whittaker. 2020. "Urban Emotion Sensing Beyond ‘Affective Capture’: Advancing Critical Interdisciplinary Methods" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 23: 9003. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239003