Next Article in Journal
Daily Physical Activity and Sedentary Time Assessed by Acceleration Based on Mean Amplitude Deviation among Older People
Next Article in Special Issue
Analysis of Performance Parameters of the Smash in Male and Female Professional Padel
Previous Article in Journal
Social Support and Well-Being of Chinese Special Education Teachers—An Emotional Labor Perspective
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Effect of Wearing a Customized Mouthguard on Body Alignment and Balance Performance in Professional Basketball Players
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effects of Tetraselmis chuii Microalgae Supplementation on Ergospirometric, Haematological and Biochemical Parameters in Amateur Soccer Players

by
Víctor Toro
1,
Jesús Siquier-Coll
1,*,
Ignacio Bartolomé
1,
María C. Robles-Gil
2,
Javier Rodrigo
1 and
Marcos Maynar-Mariño
1
1
Department of Physiology, School of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, University Avenue, s/n CP: 10003 Cáceres, Spain
2
Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, School of Teacher Training, University of Extremadura, University Avenue, s/n CP: 10003 Cáceres, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(18), 6885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186885
Submission received: 10 August 2020 / Revised: 17 September 2020 / Accepted: 18 September 2020 / Published: 21 September 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Modalities, Performance and Health)

Abstract

:
This study aimed to analyse the effects of Tetraselmis chuii (TC) microalgae supplementation during thirty days on ergospirometric, haematological and biochemical parameters in amateur soccer players. Thirty-two amateur soccer players divided into a control group (CG; n = 16; 22.36 ± 1.36 years; 68.36 ± 3.53 kg) and a supplemented group (SG; n = 16; 22.23 ± 2.19 years; 69.30 ± 5.56 kg) participated in the double-blind study. SG ingested 25 mg of the TC per day, while CG ingested 200 mg per day of lactose powder. Supplementation was carried out for thirty days. The participants performed a maximal treadmill test until exhaustion. The ergospirometric values at different ventilatory thresholds and haematological values were obtained after the test. Heart rate decreased after supplementation with TC (p < 0.05). Oxygen pulse, relative and absolute maximum oxygen consumption increased in SG (pre vs. post; 19.04 ± 2.53 vs. 22.08 ± 2.25; 53.56 ± 3.26 vs. 56.74 ± 3.43; 3.72 ± 0.35 vs. 3.99 ± 0.25; p < 0.05). Haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin increased in SG (pre vs. post; 15.12 ± 0.87 vs. 16.58 ± 0.74 p < 0.01; 28.03 ± 1.57 vs. 30.82 ± 1.21; p < 0.05). On the other hand, haematocrit and mean platelet volume decreased in SG (p < 0.05). TC supplementation elicited improvements in ergospirometric and haematological values in amateur soccer players. TC supplementation could be valuable for improving performance in amateur athletes.

1. Introduction

Microalgae are photosynthetic eukaryotic microorganisms that live in the sea and were one of the first forms of life on Earth [1]. The number of microalgae species is estimated to range from 45,000 to more than 100,000 [2], and they have been used as a food source for humans for over a thousand years [3].
Microalgae can be considered a promising food due to their nutritional characteristics [4], and their industrial cultivation has increased in recent decades [5]. They have been used in the production of functional foods [6], animal feeds, biofuels [7] and cosmetics [8].
The effects of microalgae supplementation on humans have been studied previously [9,10], and marine bioactive peptides from microalgae have shown therapeutic potential in the treatment or prevention of disease [11]. The different effects of microalgae supplementation are anti-inflammatory [12], antioxidant [13], hypotensive [14] and hypolipidemic [15], among others. Supplementation with some microalgae such as spirulina and chlorella has been well studied [16,17]; however, the effect of supplementation with Tetraselmis chuii (TC) is unknown.
TC is green microalgae discovered in the 1950s, and is a unicellular, mobile, 4 to 15 μm size microseaweed, corresponding to the class Prasinophyceae [18]. It is present in the diet of mussels, oysters, clams, scallops and corals [19], representing a species of marine microalgae that is easy to grow and safe to eat [20]. Proportional to its size, TC has a high concentration of amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals (Table 1) [21,22].
The administration of sports supplements in soccer has become a standard procedure, often promoted by team physicians, coaches and even the parents of young players [23]. However, supplementation with microalgae is not common in sport, although their intake has been gradually introduced into sport due to the bioactive peptides they contain [24]. Spirulina platensis positively modifies bone marrow production and the cellular immune response, and may be effective as an adjuvant treatment in anaemia or immunodeficiency [25]. Similarly, other studies observed increases in maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) after supplementation with other microalgae, such as spirulina or chlorella [26,27]. Nevertheless, the literature about TC supplementation is scarce, and it would be interesting to know the impact of supplementation in humans due to its aforementioned properties. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the effects of TC microalgae supplementation during thirty days on ergospirometric parameters in amateur soccer players. In addition, the possible positive or negative effects on haematological and biochemical parameters were investigated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Subjects

Thirty-two male players from a third division Spanish club participated in the study. The subjects were randomised into two groups: control group (CG; n = 16; 22.36 ± 1.36 years; 68.36 ± 3.53 kg; 1.74 ± 0.44 m) and supplemented group (SG; n = 16; 22.23 ± 2.19 years; 69.30 ± 5.56 kg; 1.73 ± 0.35 m). All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and signed a consent form before enrolling. The protocol was reviewed and approved by the Biomedical Ethics Committee of the University of Extremadura (Cáceres, Spain) following the guidelines of the Helsinki declaration of ethics, updated at the World Medical Assembly in Fortaleza (2013), for research involving human subjects (registration code: 99/2016). A code was assigned to each participant for the collection and treatment of the samples in order to maintain their anonymity. To be considered a healthy male and included in the study, participants had to comply with the inclusion criteria: not have haematological problems, not have altered values in the last blood analysis, not have anaemia problems, have four years of minimum training experience, be a nonsmoker, not have taken any supplementation, medication or over-the-counter medication, drug or alcohol in the previous two weeks and not to change their nutritional habits during the study.
At the beginning of the study, the participants completed a physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ) [28] and had a medical examination to detect any abnormalities. The participants performed 2.9 ± 0.55 metabolic equivalent of task (MET)-hour/day and no case abnormalities were reported.

2.2. Study Design

This research had a double-blind design. SG ingested a 25 mg capsule per day of powdered TC (TetraSOD®, El Puerto de Santa Maria, Andalucía, Spain) whereas CG ingested a 200 mg placebo tablet containing lactose powder. The nutritional value per day of the placebo pill was 22.6 kcal, 0.4 g water, 5.8 g carbohydrate, 0.1 g protein and 0.09 g lipids. Participants ingested the capsules for thirty days. Both capsules had identical designs to avoid interpretation among subjects. Participants were recommended to ingest all capsules at 10:00 a.m. for homogeneity of results. Table 1 shows the composition of TC [29].
The measurements were taken on the day previous to the beginning of the supplementation and after thirty days of supplementation. Participants did not intake TC on the day of the assessments. The assessments were performed after two days of inactivity to avoid the influence of training fatigue.

2.3. Blood Extraction and Determination of Haematological and Biochemical Parameters

Participants arrived between 8:00–9:00 a.m. for the extraction of 10 mL of venous blood from the antecubital vein. All extractions were carried out in fasting conditions. The blood sample was collected in a polypropylene tube. A 200 µL sample was taken from each blood tube and precipitated in a ladle and placed in the coulter (Coulter Electronics LTD, Model 6706319; Northwell Drive, Luton, UK) to obtain haematological data. For biochemical parameters, the blood was collected in 5 mL tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as anticoagulants and were centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 10 min. The plasma was separated and the biochemical parameters were determined by spectrophotometric techniques (Coulter Electronics LTD, Model CPA; Northwell Drive, Luton, UK).

2.4. Anthropometry

The anthropometric characteristics were measured in the morning at the same time after an overnight fast, always by the same researcher. A Seca© 769 (Seca, Hamburg, Germany) scale, with an accuracy of ±100 g; a Seca© 220 (Seca, Hamburg, Germany) measuring rod, accurate to ±1 mm; a Holtain© 610ND (Holtain, Crymych, UK) skinfold compass, accurate to ±0.2 mm; a Holtain© 604 (Holtain, Crymych, UK) bone diameter compass, accurate to ±1 mm; and a Seca© 201 (Seca, Hamburg, Germany) brand tape measure, accurate to ±1 mm, were used for the anthropometric assessments. The equations of the Spanish Group of Kinanthropometry [30] were used to calculate the muscle, fat and bone percentage. The anthropometric measurements obtained were height, weight, skinfolds (abdominal, suprailiac, subscapular, tricipital, thigh and leg), bone diameters (bistyloid, humeral biepicondyle and femoral biepicondyle) and muscle perimeters (relaxed arm and leg).

2.5. Nutritional Evaluation

All participants completed a nutritional survey in the first and last week of the study to guarantee that they were following a similar diet. The survey consisted of a 4-day daily nutritional record, of three preassigned week days, and one weekend day. The participants individually indicated the type, frequency and quantity (in grams) of each food consumed each day, and the nutritional composition of their diets was evaluated using different food composition tables [31].

2.6. Maximum Incremental Test and Threshold Determination

Subjects performed an incremental ergospirometric test on a treadmill (Ergofit Trac Alpin 4000, Germany). The test started with a warm-up at 8 km/h for 10 min and was increased by 1 km/h every two minutes until voluntary exhaustion. The tests were carried out in the laboratory with ambient conditions of 23 ± 2 °C (45–55% relative humidity). Physiological ergospirometric parameters were monitored with a gas analyser (Metamax model no. 762014-102, Cortex, Germany), and heart rate (HR) was monitored with a pulsometer (Polar® “Vantage M”, Kempele, Finland) with sensor band (Polar® H10, Kempele, Finland). All tests were performed from 11:30 a.m. onwards in the same order to avoid the effects of circadian cycles.
After recording the test data, the ventilatory thresholds were determined according to the three-phase model [32]. The data were obtained at the aerobic threshold (VT1), the anaerobic threshold (VT2), maximum values of the incremental test and after three minutes of recovery.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 20.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The normality of the distribution of variables was analysed using the Shapiro–Wilk test and the homogeneity of the variances with the Levene test. A paired samples t-test was used to compare the differences between pre- and post-supplementation and an independent samples t-test was used to compare the differences between CG and SG. A p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results are expressed as means ± standard deviation.

3. Results

The results obtained are presented below, before supplementation (pre) and after supplementation (post). Table 2 shows the anthropometric values in both groups. No significant changes were observed between groups.
Table 3 shows the intake of macronutrients in both groups. There was no significant difference in total macronutrient intake.
Table 4 shows the ergospirometric data of VT1 in both groups. There was a significant decrease in HR in the SG after TC supplementation (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the other parameters.
Table 5 shows the results obtained for both groups at VT2. A significant decrease can be observed in HR in SG after TC supplementation compared to CG and baseline values (p < 0.01). There were no significant differences in the remaining parameters.
Table 6 shows the maximum values obtained in the incremental test. Decreases in HRmax were observed after TC supplementation in SG compared to baseline (p < 0.05) and CG (p < 0.05). In SG, there were significant increases in oxygen pulse, and maximum absolute and relative oxygen consumption (VO2) values (p < 0.05).
Table 7 shows the ergospirometric values obtained after 3 min of recovery at the end of the maximum incremental test. Significant decreases in HR in SG were found after TC supplementation compared to CG and baseline values (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the other parameters. Figure 1 shows the key findings.
Table 8 shows the biochemical parameters studied in both groups. There were increases in glucose (p < 0.01), uric acid (p < 0.05) and creatinine (p < 0.01) values after TC supplementation in SG. In addition, the previous parameters after TC supplementation were higher in SG compared to CG.
Table 9 shows the values obtained for the different haematological parameters studied in both groups. There were increases in haemoglobin (p < 0.01) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) (p < 0.05) values after TC supplementation in SG compared to CG and baseline values. Haematocrit values and MPV decreased in SG after TC supplementation (p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

The aim of the present study was to analyse the effect of TC (TetraSOD® El Puerto de Santa Maria, Andalucía, Spain) supplementation on ergospirometric, haematological and biochemical parameters in amateur soccer players. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the impact of TC supplementation in athletes. TC supplementation during thirty days produced decreases in HR and increased absolute VO2max, relative VO2max, oxygen pulse, haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) (p < 0.05) In addition, glucose, uric acid and creatinine were higher in SG. No changes were observed in CG, which could indicate that the changes in SG could be due to TC supplementation. It should be noted that there were no differences in nutritional intake. All biochemical parameters were maintained in normal ranges. No negative effects on the body were observed.
TetraSOD® is a unique commercial product composed of 100% lyophilised TC that is currently marketed for food and nutraceutical applications. In 2017, the European Union gave approval to the company to market its lyophilised TC for use in dietary supplements such as TetraSOD®, at levels of up to 250 mg/day [20].
The decrease of HR in SG could be positively related to arterial stiffness [33,34]. Previous studies have investigated the effects of the supplementation of other green microalgae, the microalgae chlorella, on arterial stiffness. Otsuki et al. (2013) analysed the effect of 200 mg chlorella supplementation in fourteen men over twelve weeks in a double-blind trial [35]. They concluded that chlorella supplementation could decrease arterial stiffness due to the nutrients it contains. Another study analysed the supplementation of 200 mg of chlorella in thirty-two subjects, with the authors concluding that multicomponent supplementation derived from chlorella decreased arterial stiffness [36]. Thus, it could be assumed that differences in HR may be due to changes in arterial stiffness; when artery walls lose their elastic properties and become stiff, they elicit a rise in systolic blood pressure and the heart’s workload [37].
Some components present in TC may positively affect arterial stiffness; minerals such as potassium could decrease it [38], as well as unsaturated fatty acids through their anti-inflammatory function [39]. According to the results obtained, TC could reduce arterial stiffness due to the nutrients it contains and, therefore, decrease HR. The decrease in HR is related to the increase in O2 pulse [40]. This could indicate a better metabolic economy of effort by the body.
Concerning ergospirometric values, SG recorded an increase in absolute and relative VO2max (p < 0.05). Other research has analysed the effect of supplementation with other microalgae in different groups. For example, Hernández-Lepe et al. (2018) evaluated an exercise programme with and without spirulina, and a nonexercise programme with and without spirulina, in sedentary overweight and obese people [26]. They observed that supplementation of 4.5 g/day for six weeks with spirulina increased the relative VO2max in the groups that consumed the microalgae without the exercise programme. Additionally, they reported a decrease in resting HR and an increase in the maximum lactate steady state. Another crossover and double-blind study reported a rise in relative VO2max after twice-daily supplementation with chlorella (200 mg) for four weeks in ten young people [41]. In a double-blind trial by Zempo-Miyaki et al. (2017), a multicomponent supplement derived from chlorella (200 mg) for four weeks in thirty-four healthy men increased relative VO2 max in an incremental maximal test on a cycle ergometer [27].
Curiously, the maximal speed in the test before and after the supplementation in SG was similar, whereas there was an increase in absolute and relative VO2max. The rise in VO2 could be due to an increase in O2 pulse and haemoglobin. The calcium content of TC could generate an increase in oxygen transport by the haemoglobin. Calcium performs several vital functions in red blood cells that affect oxygen transport and coagulation, and increase the cell half-life [42,43]. Increases in intracellular calcium appear to promote the ability of red blood cells to supply oxygen [43].
TC contains carotenoids and polyphenols [20] that have antioxidant properties [44]. Several investigations observed that spirulina supplementation increases some enzymatic antioxidant systems [45,46]. The antioxidant properties of TC could explain the performance increase observed in this study.
Haemoglobin and MCH concentrations increased after TC supplementation in SG (p < 0.01 in haemoglobin; p < 0.05 in MCH). Microalgae have been used in animals as supplements to improve iron deficiencies [47]. Nasirian et al. (2017) investigated the effects of Spirulina platensis (15 and 30 mg/kg body weight) for five weeks on haematological parameters in diabetic rats [48]. They observed that Spirulina platensis supplementation of 30 mg/kg body weight improved total red blood cells, haemoglobin, MCH, mean cell volume and whole white blood cells. The authors hypothesised that Spirulina platensis could stimulate erythropoietin formation. In humans, Selmi et al. (2011) analysed the effect of 500 mg spirulina supplementation for twelve weeks in forty older volunteers [49]. They reported an increase in MCH in subjects of both sexes, whereas MCV and MCH concentration increased in males. They concluded that more studies are needed to confirm the results in humans. It should be noted that the participants in the previous studies were animals and older people, a different population to those of the present study.
The increases in haemoglobin concentration in SG despite a drop in haematocrit are discordant. This phenomenon could be related to the presence of some haematopoietic factor in the algae. The chlorides present in the microalgae could explain this increase [9], as cobalt chloride is an erythropoietic factor [50]. Another mineral, such as iron, could explain this increase in haemoglobin. The effects of iron on erythropoiesis and haemoglobin levels have been previously reported [51]. Finally, the bioactive peptides present in the microalgae could play a significant role as they have immunomodulation, antihypertensive or anticancer properties [52]. We believe that during the TC digestion process some bioactive peptide with haematopoietic properties can be obtained. In addition, we believe that the high levels of sodium and chloride present in TC could increase fluid retention and generate hypervolaemia, thereby decreasing haematocrit [53,54]. Further research is needed to explain the results obtained. We think that it is a finding of interest for sports performance.
This study has many limitations as it is a preliminary study of algae, which at this moment has not been previously investigated. First, the intensity and volume of training during the study could influence the results. The team’s coach confirmed that the number of training hours and days did not change during the study in both groups. However, the intensity could have been modified. Second, the number of participants in this study was small and micronutrients intake was not considered. Third, there are no studies on these microalgae to compare results, so studies on other algae have been used. Fourth, the state of hydration could not be evaluated to verify the increase in plasma volume.
Current results need to be confirmed with larger sample sizes, and different populations and concentrations of TC to analyse the potential effects of various doses, and establish a dose–response relationship. It would be interesting for future studies to investigate the antioxidant properties of TC as well as the effect on elite athletes, and analyse the intake of micronutrients.

5. Conclusions

The data obtained in this investigation suggest that the daily supplementation of 25 mg of TC (TetraSOD®) during thirty days could modify the ergospirometric and haematological parameters analysed in amateur soccer players. The absence of abnormal values in biochemical parameters would indicate that the TC microalgae would not have negative effects on our body. Although these are preliminary results, we suggest that TC could be an ergogenic alternative for athletes. The intake of TC significantly improved the values of the hemogram, which would probably be the cause of the ergospirometric changes. The reasons for ergospirometric and haematological changes after TC administration are not well understood, and further research is needed to elucidate this topic.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, V.T. and M.M.-M.; methodology, M.M.-M. and M.C.R.-G.; formal analysis, J.S.-C. and I.B.; investigation, M.M.-M. and J.R.; data curation, J.R.; writing—original draft preparation, V.T. and M.M.-M.; writing—review and editing, J.S.-C., I.B. and M.C.R.-G.; visualisation, J.R.; supervision, M.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

We want to thank the Fitoplancton Marino S.L. company for providing us with the microalgae Tetraselmis chuii for this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare a possible conflict of interest in that the Fitoplancton Marino S.L. company provided us with the microalgae Tetraselmis chuii used for this study. However, Fitoplancton Marino S.L did not participate in the design of the study, collection of data, interpretation of results or writing of the manuscript.

References

  1. Falkowski, P.G.; Katz, M.E.; Knoll, A.H.; Quigg, A.; Raven, J.A.; Schofield, O.; Taylor, F.J.R. The evolution of modern eukaryotic phytoplankton. Sciencie 2004, 305, 354–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Guiry, M.D. How many species of algae are there? J. Phycol. 2012, 48, 1057–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Milledge, J.J. Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: A brief review. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol. 2011, 10, 31–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Benedetti, M.; Vecchi, V.; Barera, S.; Dall’Osto, L. Biomass from microalgae: The potential of domestication towards sustainable biofactories. Microb. Cell Fact. 2018, 17, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Plaza, M.; Herrero, M.; Cifuentes, A.; Ibáñez, E. Innovative Natural Functional Ingredients from Microalgae. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 7159–7170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Caporgno, M.P.; Mathys, A. Trends in Microalgae Incorporation into Innovative Food Products with Potential Health Benefits. Front. Nutr. 2018, 5, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Lum, K.K.; Kim, J.; Lei, X.G. Dual potential of microalgae as a sustainable biofuel feedstock and animal feed. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 2013, 4, 53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Wang, H.-M.D.; Chen, C.-C.; Huynh, P.; Chang, J.-S. Exploring the potential of using algae in cosmetics. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 184, 355–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Levine, I.; Fleurence, J. Microalgae in Health and Disease Prevention; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2018; ISBN 978-0-12-811405-6. [Google Scholar]
  10. Kay, R.A.; Barton, L.L. Microalgae as food and supplement. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1991, 30, 555–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Kim, S.-K.; Kang, K.-H. Medicinal effects of peptides from marine microalgae. In Advances in Food and Nutrition Research; Elsevier: San Diego, CA, USA, 2011; Volume 64, pp. 313–323. ISBN 1043-4526. [Google Scholar]
  12. Barbalace, M.C.; Malaguti, M.; Giusti, L.; Lucacchini, A.; Hrelia, S.; Angeloni, C. Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Marine Algae in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Ismail, M.; Hossain, M.; Tanu, A.R.; Shekhar, H.U. Effect of spirulina intervention on oxidative stress, antioxidant status, and lipid profile in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Biomed Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 486120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Fallah, A.A.; Sarmast, E.; Dehkordi, S.H.; Engardeh, J.; Mahmoodnia, L.; Khaledifar, A.; Jafari, T. Effect of Chlorella supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 37, 1892–1901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Torres-Duran, P.V.; Ferreira-Hermosillo, A.; Juarez-Oropeza, M.A. Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of Mexican population: A preliminary report. Lipids Health Dis. 2007, 6, 33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Sathasivam, R.; Radhakrishnan, R.; Hashem, A.; Abd Allah, E.F. Microalgae metabolites: A rich source for food and medicine. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2019, 26, 709–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Karkos, P.D.; Leong, S.C.; Karkos, C.D.; Sivaji, N.; Assimakopoulos, D.A. Spirulina in clinical practice: Evidence-based human applications. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2011, 2011, 531053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  18. Butcher, R.W. An introductory account of the smaller algae of British coastal waters Part I. Introduction and Chlorophyceae. In Fishery Investigations; HMSO: Iver, UK, 1959; Volume 4, pp. 1–74. [Google Scholar]
  19. Kumaran, P.; Saifuddin, N.; Janarthanan, S. Potential of microalgae Tetraselmis Chuii as feedstock for biodiesel application. Int. Rev. Mech. Eng. 2014, 8, 283–288. [Google Scholar]
  20. Mantecón, L.; Moyano, R.; Cameán, A.M.; Jos, A. Safety assessment of a lyophilized biomass of Tetraselmis chuii (TetraSOD®) in a 90 day feeding study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2019, 133, 110810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. de Jesús Bonilla-Ahumada, F.; Khandual, S.; Lugo-Cervantes, E.C. Microencapsulation of algal biomass (Tetraselmis chuii) by spray-drying using different encapsulation materials for better preservation of beta-carotene and antioxidant compounds. Algal Res. 2018, 36, 229–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Tibbetts, S.M.; Milley, J.E.; Lall, S.P. Chemical composition and nutritional properties of freshwater and marine microalgal biomass cultured in photobioreactors. J. Appl. Phycol. 2015, 27, 1109–1119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Hespel, P.; Maughan, R.J.; Greenhaff, P.L. Dietary supplements for football. J. Sports Sci. 2006, 24, 749–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Gammone, M.A.; Gemello, E.; Riccioni, G.; D’Orazio, N. Marine bioactives and potential application in sports. Mar. Drugs 2014, 12, 2357–2382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Simsek, N.; Karadeniz, A.; Karaca, T. Effects of the Spirulina platensis and Panax ginseng oral supplementation on peripheral. Rev. Méd. Vét 2007, 158, 483–488. [Google Scholar]
  26. Hernández-Lepe, M.; López-Díaz, J.; Juárez-Oropeza, M.; Hernández-Torres, R.; Wall-Medrano, A.; Ramos-Jiménez, A. Effect of arthrospira (Spirulina) maxima supplementation and a systematic physical exercise program on the body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness of overweight or obese subjects: A double-blind, randomized, and crossover controlled trial. Mar. Drugs 2018, 16, 364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Zempo-Miyaki, A.; Maeda, S.; Otsuki, T. Effect of Chlorella-derived multicomponent supplementation on maximal oxygen uptake and serum vitamin B2 concentration in young men. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2017, 17–36. [Google Scholar]
  28. Hagströmer, M.; Oja, P.; Sjöström, M. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ): A study of concurrent and construct validity. Public Health Nutr. 2006, 9, 755–762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Barat, M.; Ferrús, M.A.; Font, G.; Hardisson, A.; Herrera, A.; Lorente, F.; Marcos, A.; Martín, M.R.; Martínez, M.R.; Martínez, A.; et al. Report of the Scientific Committee of the Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition on a request for initial assessment for marketing of the marine microalgae Tetraselmis chuii under Regulation (EC) No 258/97 on novel foods and novel food ingredients. Rev. Com. Científico AESAN 2013, 18, 11–28. [Google Scholar]
  30. Porta, J.; Galiano, D.; Tejedo, A.; González, J.M. Valoración de la composición corporal. Utopías y realidades. In Manual de Cineantropometría.; Esparza Ros, F., Ed.; FEMEDE: Madrid, Spain, 1993; pp. 113–170. [Google Scholar]
  31. Moreiras, O.; Carbajal, A.; Cabrera, L.; Cuadrado, C. Tablas de Composición de Alimentos: Guía de Prácticas; Pirámide: Madrid, Spain, 2016; ISBN 9788436836233. [Google Scholar]
  32. Skinner, J.S.; Mclellan, T.H. The transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 1980, 51, 234–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Chu, C.-Y.; Lin, T.-H.; Hsu, P.-C.; Lee, W.-H.; Lee, H.-H.; Chiu, C.-A.; Su, H.-M.; Lee, C.-S.; Yen, H.-W.; Voon, W.-C. Heart rate significantly influences the relationship between atrial fibrillation and arterial stiffness. Int. J. Med. Sci. 2013, 10, 1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Fei, D.-Y.; Arena, R.; Arrowood, J.A.; Kraft, K.A. Relationship between arterial stiffness and heart rate recovery in apparently healthy adults. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 2005, 1, 85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Otsuki, T.; Shimizu, K.; Iemitsu, M.; Kono, I. Multicomponent supplement containing Chlorella decreases arterial stiffness in healthy young men. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2013, 53, 166–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Otsuki, T.; Shimizu, K.; Maeda, S. Changes in arterial stiffness and nitric oxide production with Chlorella-derived multicomponent supplementation in middle-aged and older individuals. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2015, 57, 228–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Logan, J.G.; Kim, S.-S. Resting heart rate and aortic stiffness in normotensive adults. Korean Circ. J. 2016, 46, 834–840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  38. Sun, Y.; Byon, C.H.; Yang, Y.; Bradley, W.E.; Dell’Italia, L.J.; Sanders, P.W.; Agarwal, A.; Wu, H.; Chen, Y. Dietary potassium regulates vascular calcification and arterial stiffness. JCI Insight 2017, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  39. Monahan, K.D.; Feehan, R.P.; Blaha, C.; McLaughlin, D.J. Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on central arterial stiffness and arterial wave reflections in young and older healthy adults. Physiol. Rep. 2015, 3, e12438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Lavie, C.J.; Milani, R.V.; Mehra, M.R. Peak exercise oxygen pulse and prognosis in chronic heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 2004, 93, 588–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Umemoto, S.; Otsuki, T. Chlorella-derived multicomponent supplementation increases aerobic endurance capacity in young individuals. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2014, 55, 143–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Steffen, P.; Jung, A.; Nguyen, D.B.; Müller, T.; Bernhardt, I.; Kaestner, L.; Wagner, C. Stimulation of human red blood cells leads to Ca2+-mediated intercellular adhesion. Cell Calcium 2011, 50, 54–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Bogdanova, A.; Makhro, A.; Wang, J.; Lipp, P.; Kaestner, L. Calcium in red blood cells—a perilous balance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 9848–9872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Haoujar, I.; Cacciola, F.; Abrini, J.; Mangraviti, D.; Giuffrida, D.; Oulad El Majdoub, Y.; Kounnoun, A.; Miceli, N.; Fernanda Taviano, M.; Mondello, L. The Contribution of Carotenoids, Phenolic Compounds, and Flavonoids to the Antioxidative Properties of Marine Microalgae Isolated from Mediterranean Morocco. Molecules 2019, 24, 4037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Kalafati, M.; Jamurtas, A.Z.; Nikolaidis, M.G.; Paschalis, V.; Theodorou, A.A.; Sakellariou, G.K.; Koutedakis, Y.; Kouretas, D. Ergogenic and antioxidant effects of spirulina supplementation in humans. Med Sci Sport. Exerc 2010, 42, 142–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Lu, H.-K.; Hsieh, C.-C.; Hsu, J.-J.; Yang, Y.-K.; Chou, H.-N. Preventive effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise-induced oxidative stress. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2006, 98, 220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  47. Gao, F.; Guo, W.; Zeng, M.; Feng, Y.; Feng, G. Effect of microalgae as iron supplements on iron-deficiency anemia in rats. Food Funct. 2019, 10, 723–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Nasirian, F.; Mesbahzadeh, B.; Maleki, S.A.; Mogharnasi, M.; Kor, N.M. The effects of oral supplementation of spirulina platensis microalgae on hematological parameters in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Am. J. Transl. Res. 2017, 9, 5238. [Google Scholar]
  49. Selmi, C.; Leung, P.S.C.; Fischer, L.; German, B.; Yang, C.-Y.; Kenny, T.P.; Cysewski, G.R.; Gershwin, M.E. The effects of Spirulina on anemia and immune function in senior citizens. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 2011, 8, 248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  50. Lippi, G.; Franchini, M.; Guidi, G.C. Cobalt chloride administration in athletes: A new perspective in blood doping? Br. J. Sports Med. 2005, 39, 872–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  51. Rishi, G.; Subramaniam, V.N. The relationship between systemic iron homeostasis and erythropoiesis. Biosci. Rep. 2017, 37, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Fan, X.; Bai, L.; Zhu, L.; Yang, L.; Zhang, X. Marine algae-derived bioactive peptides for human nutrition and health. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 9211–9222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Savoie, F.A.; Asselin, A.; Goulet, E.D.B. Comparison of sodium chloride tablets–induced, sodium chloride solution–induced, and glycerol-induced hyperhydration on fluid balance responses in healthy men. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2016, 30, 2880–2891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Mora-Rodriguez, R.; Hamouti, N. Salt and fluid loading: Effects on blood volume and exercise performance. In Acute Topics in Sport Nutrition; Karger Publishers: Basel, Switzerland, 2012; Volume 59, pp. 113–119. [Google Scholar]
Figure 1. Results of the incremental test: (A) ergospirometric values corresponding to VT1; (B) ergospirometric values corresponding to VT2; (CF) maximum values of the incremental test; (G) results obtained after three minutes of recovery. CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HR: heart rate; VO2: oxygen consumption; * p < 0.05 differences pre vs. post in SG; ** p < 0.01 differences pre vs. post in SG; ^ p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Figure 1. Results of the incremental test: (A) ergospirometric values corresponding to VT1; (B) ergospirometric values corresponding to VT2; (CF) maximum values of the incremental test; (G) results obtained after three minutes of recovery. CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HR: heart rate; VO2: oxygen consumption; * p < 0.05 differences pre vs. post in SG; ** p < 0.01 differences pre vs. post in SG; ^ p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Ijerph 17 06885 g001
Table 1. Composition of TC from Fitoplacton Marino S.L.
Table 1. Composition of TC from Fitoplacton Marino S.L.
ComponentQuantityComponentQuantity
Proteins (mg/pill)75.2 ± 2.51Calcium (mg/g)33.8 ± 0.26
Carbohydrates (mg/pill)63.2 ± 2.67Phosphorus (mg/g)6.27 ± 1.87
Lipids (mg/pill)13.4 ± 1.04Magnesium (mg/g)5.06 ± 0.09
Saturated fatty acids (mg/pill)4.06 ± 0.41Potassium (mg/g)10.40 ± 0.56
Monounsaturated fatty acids (mg/pill)7.05 ± 0.86Sodium (mg/g)14.33 ± 4.16
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (mg/pill)6.26 ± 0.77Chloride (mg/g)17.77 ± 0.25
Leucine (mg/pill)1.15 ± 0.08Copper (mg/g)0.006 ± 0.0
Arginine (mg/pill)1.00 ± 0.06Iron (mg/g)2.01 ± 0.01
Glutamic acid (mg/pill)1.75 ± 0.08Manganese (mg/g)5.06 ± 0.09
Aspartic acid (mg/pill)1.39 ± 0.06Iodine (mg/kg)5.03 ± 5.78
Table 2. Anthropometric values.
Table 2. Anthropometric values.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Total weight (kg)69.55 ± 4.7069.10 ± 5.800.62369.74 ± 5.8969.05 ± 5.800.576
Σ6 skinfolds68.00 ± 18.2168.12 ± 17.950.89168.38 ± 18.6767.54 ± 18.050.401
Muscle percentage48.39 ± 1.7048.45 ± 2.670.67848.48 ± 1.6549.24 ± 2.280.245
Bone percentage17.15 ± 0.8317.17 ± 1.700.89117.10 ± 0.8717.15 ± 0.720.813
Fat percentage10.41 ± 1.6010.37 ± 1.700.45110.30 ± 1.799.80 ± 1.390.378
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; Σ: summation.
Table 3. Nutritional assessment in the first and the last weeks of the study.
Table 3. Nutritional assessment in the first and the last weeks of the study.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Total intake (kcal/days)2304.31 ± 321.212266.25 ± 307.270.5562368.63 ± 347.412286.47 ± 339.740.347
Carbohydrates (g/days)281.35 ± 35.24277.43 ± 31.430.469285.41 ± 28.31279.51 ± 30.020.338
Proteins (g/days)128.28 ± 25.62130.84 ± 22.350.629127.47 ± 26.67130.32 ± 25.720.478
Lipids (g/days)88.24 ± 21.2485.45 ± 22.370.43785.39 ± 26.8182.25 ± 22.450.405
g: grams; kcal: kilocalories.
Table 4. Ergospirometric values corresponding to VT1.
Table 4. Ergospirometric values corresponding to VT1.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Speed (km/h)10.55 ± 0.6910.62 ± 1.120.56710.71 ± 0.7310.70 ± 1.090.897
HR (bpm)155.95 ± 10.1155.50 ± 11.550.821156.50 ± 9.10152.10 ± 9.51 *0.041
Absolute VO2 (L/min)2.46 ± 0.222.47 ± 0.200.7892.47 ± 0.302.48 ± 0.270.702
Relative VO2 (mL/min/kg)35.40 ± 2.5035.80 ± 3.010.64335.51 ± 2.8736.59 ± 3.110.418
VCO2 (L/min)2.20 ± 0.252.22 ± 0.310.6092.23 ± 0.262.21 ± 0.300.587
RER (VCO2/VO2)0.90 ± 0.020.90 ± 0.010.8030.90 ± 0.020.90 ± 0.030.789
O2 pulse (mL/beat)15.90 ± 2.0915.99 ± 1.100.49515.93 ± 2.1016.05 ± 1.040.521
VE (L/min)68.30 ± 11.0568.52 ± 11.010.61368.29 ± 11.3869.50 ± 11.090.406
VE/VO225.50 ± 2.3625.55 ± 2.220.87225.64 ± 2.7625.77 ± 2.290.621
VE/VCO228.59 ± 2.6428.60 ± 2.130.88328.60 ± 2.7428.61 ± 2.040.813
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HR: heart rate; VO2: oxygen consumption; VCO2: carbon dioxide consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; O2: oxygen; VE: expired volume; p value: differences pre vs. post; *: p < 0.05 differences pre vs. post in SG.
Table 5. Ergospirometric values at VT2.
Table 5. Ergospirometric values at VT2.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Speed (km/h)15.45 ± 1.3215.10 ± 1.120.70115.50 ± 1.0215.87 ± 1.340.831
HR (bpm)184.23 ± 6.80183.95 ± 7.750.696186.57 ± 7.00177.92 ± 7.75 ^0.008
Absolute VO2 (L/min)3.33 ± 0.413.34 ± 0.240.8453.34 ± 0.433.37 ± 0.360.439
Relative VO2 (mL/min/kg)47.60 ± 3.6547.98 ± 3.560.79347.71 ± 3.9748.36 ± 3.260.278
VCO2 (L/min)3.40 ± 0.423.39 ± 0.300.8683.41 ± 0.413.40 ± 0.270.512
RER (VCO2/VO2)1.02 ± 0.011.01 ± 0.010.7711.02 ± 0.021.01 ± 0.010.814
O2 pulse (mL/beat)18.49 ± 1.2018.51 ± 1.280.88218.52 ± 1.8018.60 ± 1.260.708
VE (L/min)108.34 ± 9.43107.10 ± 9.900.791108.14 ± 9.48106.50 ± 10.000.451
VE/VO229.80 ± 2.4129.73 ± 2.480.70229.83 ± 2.4729.69 ± 2.580.512
VE/VCO229.27 ± 2.2929.45 ± 2.450.84529.24 ± 2.2329.49 ± 2.550.689
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HR: heart rate; VO2: oxygen consumption; VCO2: carbon dioxide consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; O2: oxygen; VE: expired volume; p value: differences pre vs. post; ^: p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Table 6. Maximum values of the incremental test in both groups.
Table 6. Maximum values of the incremental test in both groups.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Speed (km/h)19.60 ± 0.8919.58 ± 0.920.83419.64 ± 0.9319.82 ± 0.900.603
HRmax (bpm)198.50 ± 5.18198.38 ± 4.630.781198.43 ± 6.28194.42 ± 4.52 ^0.046
Absolute VO2max (L/min)3.76 ± 0.393.74 ± 0.310.4913.72 ± 0.353.99 ± 0.25 ^0.031
Relative VO2max (mL/min/kg)54.49 ± 3.2553.55 ± 3.400.30953.56 ± 3.2656.74 ± 3.43 ^0.043
VCO2 (L/min)4.34 ± 0.404.35 ± 0.390.8434.35 ± 0.594.32 ± 0.410.418
RER (VCO2/VO2)1.17 ± 0.041.16 ± 0.030.6191.17 ± 0.051.16 ± 0.040.626
O2 pulse (mL/beat)19.06 ± 2.4019.08 ± 2.410.79219.04 ± 2.5322.08 ± 2.25 ^0.045
VE (L/min)144.00 ± 17.21144.01 ± 18.980.925142.14 ± 18.2146.50 ± 19.350.221
VE/VO236.50 ± 4.1137.00 ± 4.090.21336.63 ± 4.5737.52 ± 4.020.426
VE/VCO231.61 ± 2.2331.98 ± 2.320.67831.68 ± 2.7332.49 ± 2.850.406
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HRmax: maximum heart rate; VO2max: maximum oxygen consumption; VCO2: carbon dioxide consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; O2: oxygen; VE: expired volume; p value: differences pre vs. post; ^: p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Table 7. Ergospirometric results obtained after three minutes of recovery.
Table 7. Ergospirometric results obtained after three minutes of recovery.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
HR (bpm)131.23 ± 12.12130.90 ± 12.200.705131.10 ± 10.51125.50 ± 10.29 ^0.039
VO2 (L/min)0.95 ± 0.380.94 ± 0.190.6450.96 ± 0.280.95 ± 0.360.715
Relative VO2/kg (mL/min/kg)13.29 ± 2.4513.01 ± 2.150.47913.57 ± 3.0514.08 ± 2.050.255
Absolute VCO2 (L/min)1.20 ± 0.371.19 ± 0.250.6311.22 ± 0.381.20 ± 0.200.521
RER (VCO2/VO2)1.28 ± 0.101.29 ± 0.090.6991.29 ± 0.111.28 ± 0.070.589
O2 pulse (mL/beat)7.32 ± 1.327.11 ± 1.010.3067.38 ± 2.357.17 ± 0.940.201
VE (L/min)46.90 ± 14.5145.11 ± 12.360.21846.14 ± 15.5745.07 ± 13.400.349
VE/VO245.40 ± 5.9745.32 ± 5.680.52145.58 ± 6.8844.86 ± 5.080.180
VE/VCO235.28 ± 3.7035.26 ± 3.570.84435.34 ± 3.8335.31 ± 3.470.719
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HR: heart rate; VO2: oxygen consumption; VCO2: carbon dioxide consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; O2: oxygen; VE: expired volume; p value: differences pre vs. post; ^: p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Table 8. Biochemical values of both groups.
Table 8. Biochemical values of both groups.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Glucose (mg/dL)84.02 ± 8.2985.10 ± 6.300.41783.01 ± 10.3191.01 ± 5.40 ^0.007
Cholesterol (mg/dL)113.11 ± 20.81110.78 ± 25.150.327112.27 ± 22.73107.78 ± 24.400.219
Triglycerides (mg/dL)51.44 ± 26.2049.60 ± 20.300.41550.79 ± 35.3943.59 ± 19.070.105
Uric acid (mg/dL)5.74 ± 0.725.75 ± 0.730.7355.76 ± 0.766.04 ± 0.77 ^0.035
HDL (mg/dL)52.02 ± 6.5053.60 ± 7.610.62151.14 ± 6.3555.54 ± 7.500.195
LDL (mg/dL)50.37 ± 20.2149.12 ± 20.110.56950.97 ± 20.6243.58 ± 20.910.077
GOT (U/L)36.23 ± 13.7636.11 ± 12.930.87736.79 ± 14.9136.06 ± 11.960.421
GPT (U/L)27.45 ± 14.1226.88 ± 12.310.52127.32 ± 15.1225.88 ± 10.380.451
GGT (U/L)21.40 ± 18.0622.02 ± 17.210.61021.53 ± 19.0722.25 ± 17.460.653
Creatinine (mg/dL)0.96 ± 0.110.97 ± 0.100.6900.96 ± 0.101.07 ± 0.12 ^0.043
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; HDL: high density lipoprotein; LDL: low density lipoprotein; GOT: glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase; GPT: glutamic-pyruvic transaminase; GGT: gamma-glutamyl transferase; p value: differences pre vs. post; ^: p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.
Table 9. Haemogram of both groups in the different evaluations.
Table 9. Haemogram of both groups in the different evaluations.
CG (n = 16)SG (n = 16)
PrePostp ValuePrePostp Value
Red blood cells (millions)5.40 ± 0.315.39 ± 0.350.7345.43 ± 0.345.42 ± 0.390.569
Haemoglobin (gr %)15.25 ± 0.8015.24 ± 0.840.45915.12 ± 0.8716.58 ± 0.74 **^0.008
Haematocrit (%)48.29 ± 2.7248.45 ± 2.150.74348.03 ± 2.1546.68 ± 2.05 *^0.045
MCV (fL)88.00 ± 2.5587.84 ± 3.080.58588.10 ± 2.7587.49 ± 4.050.418
MCH (Pg)28.31 ± 1.6029.26 ± 1.690.47628.03 ± 1.5730.82 ± 1.21 *0.042
Platelets (thousands)223.67 ± 70.05225.39 ± 65.560.702222.72 ± 90.05241.31 ± 46.990.216
MPV (fL)9.00 ± 1.429.01 ± 1.200.8339.02 ± 1.138.04 ± 1.05 *^0.041
Leukocytes (thousands)6.57 ± 1.176.53 ± 1.730.7046.55 ± 1.676.51 ± 1.730.491
Lymphocytes (103/μL)1.90 ± 0.601.89 ± 0.330.7551.89 ± 0.611.88 ± 0.420.306
Neutrophils (103/μL)3.78 ± 1.103.75 ± 1.120.6493.77 ± 1.243.76 ± 1.090.703
Monocytes (103/μL)0.40 ± 0.120.41 ± 0.200.8050.39 ± 0.150.41 ± 0.240.498
Basophils (103/μL)0.05 ± 0.020.06 ± 0.050.8760.05 ± 0.030.06 ± 0.060.614
Eosinophil (103/μL)0.28 ± 0.180.27 ± 0.190.8590.28 ± 0.190.26 ± 0.200.592
ESR (mm)6.59 ± 2.806.41 ± 2.900.6216.53 ± 3.616.43 ± 2.730.217
CG: control group; SG: supplemented group; MCV: medium corpuscular volume; MCH: mean corpuscular haemoglobin; MPV: mean platelet volume; ESR: erythrocyte sedimentation rate; p value: differences pre vs. post; ^ p < 0.05 differences post CG vs. post SG.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Toro, V.; Siquier-Coll, J.; Bartolomé, I.; Robles-Gil, M.C.; Rodrigo, J.; Maynar-Mariño, M. Effects of Tetraselmis chuii Microalgae Supplementation on Ergospirometric, Haematological and Biochemical Parameters in Amateur Soccer Players. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6885. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186885

AMA Style

Toro V, Siquier-Coll J, Bartolomé I, Robles-Gil MC, Rodrigo J, Maynar-Mariño M. Effects of Tetraselmis chuii Microalgae Supplementation on Ergospirometric, Haematological and Biochemical Parameters in Amateur Soccer Players. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(18):6885. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186885

Chicago/Turabian Style

Toro, Víctor, Jesús Siquier-Coll, Ignacio Bartolomé, María C. Robles-Gil, Javier Rodrigo, and Marcos Maynar-Mariño. 2020. "Effects of Tetraselmis chuii Microalgae Supplementation on Ergospirometric, Haematological and Biochemical Parameters in Amateur Soccer Players" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 18: 6885. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186885

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop