Changes in the Static Balance of Older Women Participating in Regular Nordic Walking Sessions and Nordic Walking Combined with Cognitive Training
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
2.2. Sample
2.3. Data Collection
- Arm Curl. Evaluation of upper body strength.
- 30-s Chair Stand. Evaluation of lower body strength.
- Back Scratch Test. Examination of upper body mobility.
- Chair Sit and Reach Test. The aim of the test is to assess the flexibility of the lower body (especially the popliteus tendon).
- 8-Foot Up-and-Go and 6-Min Walk tests. Evaluation of agility (dynamic balance) and long-distance aerobic endurance.
- 2-Min Step in Place Test. Evaluation of aerobic endurance is performed if the 6-Min Walk test is impossible.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Changes in the Ability to Maintain Balance
3.2. Correlations between the Improvement in the Ability to Maintain Balance and Improvement in Physical and Cognitive Fitness
3.3. Predictors of Improving the Ability to Maintain Balance
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Test | Measurement | Group | ANOVA | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First (M ± SD) | Second (M ± SD) | C (M *) | NW (M *) | NW + CT (M *) | Measurement (F, p, η2) | Group (F, p, η2) | Interaction (F, p, η2) | |
With eyes open, on left leg 1 | 3.89 ± 6.92 | 4.84 ± 6.86 | 3.74 | 4.65 | 4.72 | 26.24; <0.001; 0.311 | 0.130, ns | 22.43; <0.001; 0.436 |
With eyes open, on right leg 1 | 3.79 ± 6.41 | 4.89 ± 6.66 | 2.93 | 5.22 | 4.92 | 42.01; <0.001; 0.420 | 0.761; ns | 21.86; <0.001; 0.430 |
With eyes closed, on left leg 1 | 1.62 ± 2.96 | 1.62 ± 3.08 | 0.88 | 2.37 | 1.65 | 0.003; ns | 1.28; ns | 3.29; 0.044; 0.102 |
With eyes closed, on right leg 1 | 1.87 ± 3.27 | 1.79 ± 3.07 | 1.33 | 2.50 | 1.67 | 0.740; ns | 0.366; ns | 0.282; ns |
Test | Measurement | Group C (1) (M ± SD) | Comparison of Measurements p * | Group NW (2) (M ± SD) | Comparison of Measurements p * | Group NW + CT (3) (M ± SD) | Comparison of Measurement p * | Comparison of Groups | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1–2 p * | 1–3 p * | 2–3 p * | ||||||||
With eyes open, on left leg 1 | I | 4.10 ± 7.327 | ns | 4.00 ± 6.681 | 0.003 | 3.55 ± 7.060 | <0.001 | ns | ns | ns |
II | 3.38 ± 7.22 | 5.30 ± 6.72 | 5.90 ± 6.70 | ns | ns | ns | ||||
With yes open, on right leg 1 | I | 3.05 ± 3.92 | ns | 4.70 ± 7.85 | 0.012 | 3.65 ± 7.10 | <0.001 | ns | ns | ns |
II | 2.81 ± 3.92 | 5.75 ± 8.51 | 6.20 ± 6.62 | ns | ns | ns | ||||
With eyes closed, on left leg 1 | I | 1.00 ± 1.26 | ns | 2.35 ± 3.96 | ns | 1.55 ± 3.03 | ns | ns | ns | ns |
II | 0.76 ± 1.26 | 2.40 ± 4.17 | 1.75 ± 3.06 | ns | ns | ns | ||||
With eyes closed, on right leg 1 | I | 1.43 ± 1.66 | ns | 2.55 ± 4.41 | ns | 1.65 ± 3.26 | ns | ns | ns | ns |
II | 1.24 ± 1.55 | 2.45 ± 4.15 | 1.70 ± 3.04 | ns | ns | ns |
Test | Group | ANOVA (F, p, η2) | Post-hoc Tests | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C (1) (M ± SD) | NW (2) (M ± SD) | NW + CT (3) (M ± SD) | 1–2 | 1–3 | 2–3 | ||
With eyes open, on left leg 1 | −0.71 ± 0.72 | 1.30 ± 1.56 | 2.35 ± 1.95 | 22.43; <0.001; 0.436 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.075 |
With eyes open, on right leg 1 | −0.24 ± 0.54 | 1.05 ± 1.15 | 2.55 ± 1.99 | 21.86; <0.001; 0.430 | 0.009 | <0.001 | 0.002 |
With eyes closed, on left leg 1 | −0.24 ± 0.62 | 0.05 ± 0.51 | 0.20 ± 0.52 | 3.29; 0.044; ns | ns | 0.038 | ns |
With eyes closed, on right leg 1 | −0.19 ± 1.33 | −0.10 ± 0.97 | 0.05 ± 0.69 | 0.282; ns | ns | ns | ns |
Area | Variable | Improved Balance (with Eyes Open, on Left Leg) | Improved Balance (with Eyes Open, on Right Leg) | Improved Balance (with Eyes Closed, on Left Leg) | Improved Balance (with Eyes Closed, on Right Leg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical fitness | Increased strength of the left hand (dynamometer) | 0.312 * | 0.189 | 0.032 | 0.051 |
Increased strength of the right hand (dynamometer) | 0.451 ** | 0.277 * | 0.086 | 0.134 | |
Increased aerobic endurance 1 | 0.446 ** | 0.374 ** | 0.267 * | 0.109 | |
Improved flexibility (left leg) 2 | 0.299 * | 0.228 t | 0.118 | −0.011 | |
Improved flexibility (right leg) 2 | 0.295 * | 0.196 | 0.185 | 0.072 | |
Improved upper body mobility (left limb) 3 | 0.073 | 0.075 | 0.016 | −0.018 | |
Improved upper body mobility (right limb) 3 | 0.350 ** | 0.318 * | 0.149 | −0.091 | |
Increased lower body strength 4 | 0.560 ** | 0.451 ** | 0.324 ** | 0.093 | |
Increased agility 5 | 0.584 ** | 0.533 ** | 0.250 t | 0.135 | |
Increased upper body6 strength (left hand) | 0.428 ** | 0.404 ** | 0.321 * | 0.212 | |
Increased upper body strength (right hand) 6 | 0.524 ** | 0.576 ** | 0.323 * | 0.140 | |
Perceptual efficiency | Improved perception speed 7 | 0.406 ** | 0.407 ** | 0.234 t | 0.100 |
Decrease in perception fallibility 8 | 0.392 ** | 0.300 * | 0.211 | 0.085 |
Dependent Variable | Step | Predictor | Beta | Model (R2; F; p) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Improved balance—with eyes open | 1. | Increased agility 2 | 0.599 | 0.347; 32.943, <0.001 |
2. | Increased agility 2 | 0.390 | 0.426; 23.240; <0.001 | |
Increased strength of the right hand 3 | 0.361 | |||
Improved balance—with eyes closed | 1. | Increased strength of the left hand 3 | 0.293 | 0.071; 5.553; 0.022 |
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Piotrowska, J.; Guszkowska, M.; Leś, A.; Rutkowska, I. Changes in the Static Balance of Older Women Participating in Regular Nordic Walking Sessions and Nordic Walking Combined with Cognitive Training. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155617
Piotrowska J, Guszkowska M, Leś A, Rutkowska I. Changes in the Static Balance of Older Women Participating in Regular Nordic Walking Sessions and Nordic Walking Combined with Cognitive Training. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(15):5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155617
Chicago/Turabian StylePiotrowska, Joanna, Monika Guszkowska, Anna Leś, and Izabela Rutkowska. 2020. "Changes in the Static Balance of Older Women Participating in Regular Nordic Walking Sessions and Nordic Walking Combined with Cognitive Training" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 15: 5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155617
APA StylePiotrowska, J., Guszkowska, M., Leś, A., & Rutkowska, I. (2020). Changes in the Static Balance of Older Women Participating in Regular Nordic Walking Sessions and Nordic Walking Combined with Cognitive Training. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15), 5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155617