Coffee Consumption, Genetic Polymorphisms, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Pooled Analysis of Four Prospective Cohort Studies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Ascertainment of Type 2 Diabetes
2.3. Assessments of Coffee and Other Factors
2.4. Genotyping and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) Selection
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics of Participants
3.2. Association Between Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes
3.3. Subgroup Analyses for the Association Between Coffee Consumption and Type 2 Diabetes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Coffee Consumption (cups/Day) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study | 0 to <0.5 | 0.5 to <1 | 1 to <3 | ≥3 | p Value 2 |
HEXA | |||||
Total population no. | 15,480 | 5310 | 22,598 | 10,734 | |
Age at baseline (years of age) | 54.51 ± 7.82 | 52.73 ± 7.86 | 52.89 ± 7.87 | 51.12 ± 7.70 | <0.001 |
Sex | <0.001 | ||||
Men | 3980 (25.71) | 1692 (31.86) | 6883 (30.46) | 4981 (46.40) | |
Women | 11,500 (74.29) | 3618 (68.14) | 15,715 (69.54) | 5753 (53.60) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.001 | ||||
<18.5 | 354 (2.29) | 88 (1.66) | 344 (1.52) | 147 (1.37) | |
18.5–<23 | 6848 (44.27) | 2082 (39.23) | 8689 (38.46) | 3839 (35.79) | |
23–<25 | 4266 (27.58) | 1546 (29.13) | 6433 (28.47) | 3087 (28.78) | |
≥25 | 4001 (25.86) | 1591 (29.98) | 7126 (31.54) | 3654 (34.06) | |
Cigarette smoking (pack-years) 1 | 2.79 ± 8.57 | 4.13 ± 10.41 | 4.47 ± 10.84 | 9.33 ± 15.35 | <0.001 |
Alcohol drinking (g/day) 1 | 4.98 ± 26.92 | 6.00 ± 16.80 | 6.03 ± 15.20 | 9.19 ± 21.81 | <0.001 |
Regular exercise 1 | <0.001 | ||||
no | 6572 (42.61) | 2151 (40.59) | 10,069 (44.72) | 5279 (49.30) | |
yes | 8852 (57.39) | 3148 (59.41) | 12,447 (55.28) | 5428 (50.70) | |
Education level 1 | <0.001 | ||||
Elementary school or less | 2778 (18.20) | 643 (12.22) | 2996 (13.42) | 1026 (9.65) | |
Middle school | 2828 (18.53) | 754 (14.33) | 3462 (15.51) | 1443 (13.57) | |
High school or above | 9655 (63.27) | 3863 (73.44) | 15,866 (71.07) | 8163 (76.78) | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1649.55 ± 493.61 | 1697.68 ± 494.80 | 1780.62 ± 490.32 | 1881.3 ± 541.84 | <0.001 |
Green tea consumption (cups/day) | <0.001 | ||||
0–<1 | 6057 (39.13) | 1583 (29.81) | 8864 (39.22) | 4727 (44.04) | |
1–<2 | 7653 (49.44) | 3134 (59.02) | 9211 (40.76) | 3919 (36.51) | |
≥2 | 1770 (11.44) | 593 (11.17) | 4523 (20.02) | 2088 (19.45) | |
CAVAS | |||||
Total population no. | 3375 | 889 | 3991 | 1739 | |
Age at baseline (years of age) | 61.84 ± 9.07 | 59.79 ± 9.25 | 60.50 ± 9.09 | 58.50 ± 9.27 | <0.001 |
Sex | <0.001 | ||||
Men | 1038 (30.76) | 354 (39.82) | 1451 (36.36) | 937 (53.88) | |
Women | 2337 (69.24) | 535 (60.18) | 2540 (63.64) | 802 (46.12) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.001 | ||||
<18.5 | 70 (2.07) | 17 (1.91) | 64 (1.60) | 30 (1.73) | |
18.5-<23 | 1238 (36.68) | 278 (31.27) | 1198 (30.02) | 549 (31.57) | |
23-<25 | 865 (25.63) | 218 (24.52) | 1061 (26.58) | 445 (25.59) | |
≥25 | 1202 (35.61) | 376 (42.29) | 1668 (41.79) | 715 (41.12) | |
Cigarette smoking (pack-years) 1 | 4.75 ± 13.26 | 6.99 ± 15.64 | 7.15 ± 15.96 | 14.17 ± 21.63 | <0.001 |
Alcohol drinking (g/day) 1 | 7.01 ± 22.73 | 10.69 ± 25.78 | 8.40 ± 22.47 | 10.26 ± 23.08 | <0.001 |
Regular exercise 1 | 0.141 | ||||
no | 2303 (68.34) | 580 (65.24) | 2756 (69.11) | 1174 (67.55) | |
yes | 1067 (31.66) | 309 (34.76) | 1232 (30.89) | 564 (32.45) | |
Education level 1 | <0.001 | ||||
Elementary school or less | 2085 (61.98) | 433 (48.82) | 2165 (54.30) | 754 (43.43) | |
Middle school | 532 (15.81) | 150 (16.91) | 713 (17.88) | 345 (19.87) | |
High school or above | 747 (22.21) | 304 (34.27) | 1109 (27.82) | 637 (36.69) | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1541.67 ± 474.21 | 1634.86 ± 492.65 | 1679.10 ± 469.95 | 1846.12 ± 545.15 | <0.001 |
Green tea consumption (cups/day) | <0.001 | ||||
0–<1 | 1351 (40.03) | 346 (38.92) | 1826 (45.75) | 825 (47.44) | |
1–<2 | 1676 (49.66) | 478 (53.77) | 1479 (37.06) | 592 (34.04) | |
≥2 | 348 (10.31) | 65 (7.31) | 686 (17.19) | 322 (18.52) | |
KARE | |||||
Total population no. | 2079 | 546 | 2280 | 793 | |
Age at baseline (years of age) | 53.41 ± 8.70 | 50.71 ± 8.16 | 50.20 ± 8.14 | 48.60 ± 7.48 | <0.001 |
Sex | <0.001 | ||||
Men | 804 (38.67) | 280 (51.28) | 1027 (45.04) | 551 (69.48) | |
Women | 1275 (61.33) | 266 (48.72) | 1253 (54.96) | 242 (30.52) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.001 | ||||
<18.5 | 42 (2.02) | 3 (0.55) | 25 (1.10) | 14 (1.77) | |
18.5–<23 | 696 (33.48) | 148 (27.11) | 659 (28.90) | 214 (26.99) | |
23–<25 | 524 (25.20) | 159 (29.12) | 622 (27.28) | 209 (26.36) | |
≥25 | 817 (39.30) | 236 (43.22) | 974 (42.72) | 356 (44.89) | |
Cigarette smoking (pack-years) 1 | 5.61 ± 12.29 | 8.19 ± 13.33 | 8.37 ± 14.72 | 17.35 ± 19.62 | <0.001 |
Alcohol drinking (g/day) 1 | 6.86 ± 17.69 | 9.64 ± 19.92 | 9.35 ± 21.12 | 13.22 ± 25.44 | <0.001 |
Exercise (MET-h/wk) 1 | 1596.83 ± 970.33 | 1574.97 ± 985.81 | 1507.31 ± 911.05 | 1441.54 ± 961.17 | <0.001 |
Education level 1 | <0.001 | ||||
Elementary school or less | 1315 (63.68) | 274 (50.46) | 1108 (48.85) | 305 (38.56) | |
Middle school | 538 (26.05) | 182 (33.52) | 810 (35.71) | 329 (41.59) | |
High school or above | 212 (10.27) | 87 (16.02) | 350 (15.43) | 157 (19.85) | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1861.91 ± 614.64 | 1933.38 ± 609.98 | 1971.82 ± 589.86 | 2115.02 ± 647.64 | <0.001 |
Green tea consumption (cups/day) | <0.001 | ||||
0–<1 | 795 (38.24) | 170 (31.14) | 857 (37.59) | 361 (45.52) | |
1–<2 | 1063 (51.13) | 330 (60.44) | 982 (43.07) | 281 (35.44) | |
≥2 | 221 (7.89) | 46 (8.42) | 441 (19.34) | 151 (19.05) | |
TWIN | |||||
Total population no. | 478 | 252 | 590 | 393 | |
Age at baseline (years of age) | 43.21 ± 14.66 | 43.99 ± 13.78 | 42.58 ± 11.60 | 41.73 ± 10.12 | 0.121 |
Sex | <0.001 | ||||
Men | 161 (33.68) | 86 (34.13) | 209 (35.42) | 194 (49.36) | |
Women | 317 (66.32) | 166 (65.87) | 381 (64.58) | 199 (50.64) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.012 | ||||
<18.5 | 18 (3.77) | 11 (4.37) | 6 (1.02) | 10 (2.54) | |
18.5–<23 | 226 (47.38) | 104 (41.27) | 265 (44.92) | 154 (39.19) | |
23–<25 | 110 (23.06) | 57 (22.62) | 145 (24.58) | 93 (23.66) | |
≥25 | 123 (25.79) | 80 (31.75) | 174 (29.49) | 136 (34.61) | |
Cigarette smoking (pack-years) 1 | 2.54 ± 7.75 | 3.22 ± 8.24 | 4.37 ± 9.57 | 9.55 ± 16.96 | <0.001 |
Alcohol drinking (g/day) 1 | 7.09 ± 16.94 | 7.36 ± 14.26 | 8.94 ± 18.36 | 16.36 ± 53.90 | <0.001 |
Regular exercise 1 | 0.176 | ||||
no | 291 (62.58) | 161 (65.18) | 384 (66.67) | 270 (70.13) | |
yes | 174 (37.42) | 86 (34.82) | 192 (33.33) | 115 (29.87) | |
Education level 1 | 0.051 | ||||
Elementary school or less | 75 (15.82) | 30 (11.95) | 64 (10.87) | 38 (9.69) | |
Middle school | 28 (5.91) | 24 (9.56) | 38 (6.45) | 28 (7.14) | |
High school or above | 371 (78.27) | 197 (78.49) | 487 (82.68) | 326 (83.16) | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1815.86 ± 707.23 | 1869.54 ± 647.56 | 1904.06 ± 632.84 | 2069.78 ± 697.32 | <0.001 |
Green tea consumption (cups/day) | <0.001 | ||||
0–<1 | 142 (29.71) | 49 (19.44) | 147 (24.92) | 100 (25.45) | |
1–<2 | 210 (43.93) | 125 (49.60) | 214 (36.27) | 132 (33.59) | |
≥2 | 126 (26.36) | 88 (30.96) | 229 (38.81) | 161 (40.96) |
Coffee Consumption (cups/Day) | p for Trend | p for Heterogeneity 1 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study | Median Follow-Up Period (Years) | 0 to <0.5 | 0.5 to <1 | 1 to <3 | ≥3 | ||
HEXA | 4.25 | ||||||
Case/Total no. | 810/15,480 | 299/5310 | 1199/22,598 | 561/10,734 | |||
Age-sex adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.12 (0.97–1.28) | 1.05 (0.96–1.15) | 1.03 (0.92–1.15) | 0.94 | ||
MV adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.05 (0.92–1.21) | 0.97 (0.88–1.06) | 0.90 (0.80–1.01) | 0.04 | ||
CAVAS | 2.08 | ||||||
Case/Total no. | 92/3375 | 28/889 | 121/3991 | 43/1739 | |||
Age-sex adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.17 (0.76–1.80) | 1.12 (0.85–1.48) | 0.90 (0.62–1.31) | 0.62 | ||
MV adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.11 (0.72–1.71) | 1.05 (0.79–1.39) | 0.84 (0.57–1.24) | 0.38 | ||
KARE | 11.67 | ||||||
Case/Total no. | 515/1564 | 126/420 | 556/1724 | 192/601 | |||
Age-sex adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) | 1.06 (0.92–1.22) | 1.02 (0.84–1.25) | 0.71 | ||
MV adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.90 (0.72–1.14) | 0.99 (0.85–1.15) | 0.88 (0.71–1.09) | 0.29 | ||
TWIN | 3.17 | ||||||
Case/Total no. | 18/478 | 10/252 | 17/590 | 13/393 | |||
Age-sex adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.04 (0.44–1.46) | 0.86 (0.43–1.68) | 1.08 (0.48–1.40) | 0.90 | ||
MV adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (0.42–1.39) | 0.75 (0.38–1.48) | 0.82 (0.33–1.06) | 0.65 | ||
Pooled | |||||||
MV adjusted OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.02 (0.91–1.14) | 0.97 (0.90–1.05) | 0.89 (0.80–0.98) | 0.01 | 0.99 |
Coffee Consumption (cups/Day) | p for Trend | p for Interaction | p for Heterogeneity 1 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subgroup | 0 to <0.5 | 0.5 to <1 | 1 to <3 | ≥3 | ||||
Age at baseline (years) | 0.24 | |||||||
<50 | Case/Total no. | 355/5811 | 131/2522 | 559/10,335 | 311/5986 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.84 (0.68–1.05) | 0.87 (0.75–1.01 | 0.79 (0.67–0.95) | 0.01 | 0.49 | ||
≥50 | Case/Total no. | 1080/15,601 | 332/4475 | 1334/19,124 | 498/7673 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.10 (0.96–1.26) | 1.01 (0.93–1.11) | 0.91 (0.81–1.03) | 0.11 | 0.63 | ||
Sex | 0.51 | |||||||
Men | Case/Total no. | 527/5983 | 216/2412 | 850/9570 | 503/6663 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.03 (0.86–1.23) | 1.01 (0.89–1.14) | 0.86 (0.75–0.99) | 0.02 | 0.97 | ||
Women | Case/Total no. | 908/15,429 | 247/4585 | 1043/19,889 | 306/6996 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.02 (0.88–1.19) | 0.95 (0.86–1.04) | 0.93 (0.80–1.07) | 0.15 | 0.86 | ||
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.12 | |||||||
<25 | Case/Total no. | 766/15,257 | 211/4711 | 846/19,511 | 335/8791 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.82–1.14) | 0.90 (0.81–1.00) | 0.80 (0.69–0.92) | <0.01 | 0.34 | ||
≥25 | Case/Total no. | 669/6143 | 252/2283 | 1046/9942 | 473/4861 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.09 (0.93–1.28) | 1.04 (0.93–1.16) | 0.96 (0.83–1.10) | 0.27 | 0.45 | ||
Smoking status | 0.31 | |||||||
Never | Case/Total no. | 1011/17,420 | 290/5233 | 1197/21,918 | 341/7769 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.06 (0.96–1.17) | 1.01 (0.94–1.07) | 0.93 (0.84–1.02) | 0.18 | 0.47 | ||
Ever | Case/Total no. | 411/3894 | 169/1741 | 689/7427 | 466/5852 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.06 (0.92–1.21) | 0.99 (0.91–1.08) | 0.89 (0.81–0.98) | 0.01 | 0.81 | ||
Alcohol drinking | 0.73 | |||||||
Non-drinker | Case/Total no. | 889/14,070 | 200/3687 | 944/15,277 | 323/5993 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.92 (0.78–1.09) | 1.00 (0.90–1.11) | 0.87 (0.75–1.00) | 0.11 | 0.87 | ||
Current drinker | Case/Total no. | 540/7251 | 260/3282 | 941/14,070 | 483/7617 | |||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.13 (0.96–1.33)) | 0.95 (0.85- 1.07) | 0.90 (0.78- 1.04) | 0.04 | 0.70 |
Subgroup | Coffee Consumption (cups/Day) | p for Trend | p for Interaction | p for Heterogeneity 1 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SNP (Risk/Other) | Chr | Locus | 0 to <0.5 | 0.5 to <1 | 1 to <3 | ≥3 | ||||
rs7756992(G/A) | 6 | CDKAL1 | 0.56 | |||||||
GG+AG | Case/Total no. | 424/2610 | 112/758 | 448/2957 | 165/1228 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.92 (0.72–1.17) | 0.93 (0.79–1.09) | 0.83 (0.66–1.04) | 0.11 | 0.96 | ||||
AA | Case/Total no. | 111/757 | 21/192 | 117/806 | 38/289 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.79 (0.45–1.39) | 1.03 (0.75–1.42) | 0.99 (0.61–1.59) | 0.87 | 0.70 | ||||
rs10811661(T/C) | 9 | CDKN2A/B | 0.97 | |||||||
TT+CT | Case/Total no. | 437/2697 | 113/776 | 452/3020 | 170/1228 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.97 (0.75–1.23) | 0.93 (0.79–1.09) | 0.85 (0.68–1.06) | 0.15 | 0.99 | ||||
CC | Case/Total no. | 97/670 | 20/174 | 113/743 | 34/290 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.75 (0.44–1.31) | 1.03 (0.74–1.43) | 0.86 (0.52–1.41) | 0.69 | 0.78 | ||||
rs5215(C/T) | 11 | KCNJ11 | 0.73 | |||||||
CC+CT | Case/Total no. | 347/2183 | 77/605 | 371/2425 | 131/997 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.83 (0.62–1.11) | 0.98 (0.83–1.17) | 0.87 (0.68–1.12) | 0.34 | 0.61 | ||||
TT | Case/Total no. | 187/1179 | 55/343 | 194/1335 | 72/519 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.08 (0.74–1.56) | 0.90 (0.71–1.15) | 0.80 (0.56–1.13) | 0.22 | 0.42 | ||||
rs163184(G/T) | 11 | KCNQ1 | 0.62 | |||||||
GG+TG | Case/Total no. | 381/2203 | 85/633 | 399/2428 | 133/1000 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.81 (0.62–1.07) | 0.99 (0.83–1.17) | 0.81 (0.63–1.04) | 0.15 | 0.34 | ||||
TT | Case/Total no. | 154/1164 | 48/314 | 166/1336 | 71/517 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.10 (0.74–1.63) | 0.90 (0.69–1.17) | 0.94 (0.65–1.35) | 0.78 | 0.20 | ||||
rs3786897(A/G) * | 19 | PEPD | 0.68 | |||||||
AA+AG | Case/Total no. | 403/2180 | 98/561 | 440/2453 | 149/909 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.88 (0.68–1.14) | 0.95 (0.80–1.12) | 0.82 (0.65–1.04) | 0.81 | 0.07 | ||||
GG | Case/Total no. | 87/543 | 19/123 | 87/538 | 34/200 | |||||
Pooled OR (CIs) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.94 (0.52–1.70) | 1.15 (0.79–1.65) | 1.31 (0.78–2.18) | 0.27 | 0.93 |
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Kim, A.N.; Cho, H.J.; Youn, J.; Jin, T.; Kang, M.; Sung, J.; Lee, J.E. Coffee Consumption, Genetic Polymorphisms, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Pooled Analysis of Four Prospective Cohort Studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5379. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155379
Kim AN, Cho HJ, Youn J, Jin T, Kang M, Sung J, Lee JE. Coffee Consumption, Genetic Polymorphisms, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Pooled Analysis of Four Prospective Cohort Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(15):5379. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155379
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, An Na, Hyun Jeong Cho, Jiyoung Youn, Taiyue Jin, Moonil Kang, Joohon Sung, and Jung Eun Lee. 2020. "Coffee Consumption, Genetic Polymorphisms, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Pooled Analysis of Four Prospective Cohort Studies" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 15: 5379. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155379