The Contribution of Fluoride to the Pathogenesis of Eye Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications for Public Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Role of Fluoride in Oral Health and Dietary Sources of Fluoride
3. Molecular and Biochemical Markers Relevant to the Pathophysiology of Eye Diseases
3.1. The Role of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants in Eye Disease
3.2. The Role of Na+, K+-ATPase Activity in Degenerative Eye Diseases
3.3. Nuclear Factor Erythroid-2-Related Factor 2 Nuclear Factor
3.4. Nuclear Factor Kappa-Light-Chain-Enhancer of Activated B Cells (NF-kB)
3.5. B-Cell Lymphoma 2 (BCL-2)
3.6. Forkhead Box Protein FoxO Proteins
3.7. Interleukin 6
3.8. Paraoxonase 1
4. Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Fluoride Contribution to Eye Diseases
4.1. Fluoride Inhibition of Carbohydrate Metabolism
4.2. Fluoride and Heat Shock Proteins
4.3. Fluoride Inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase Activity
4.4. Fluoride Inhibition of Nrf2
4.5. Fluoride Activation of NF-Kb Expression
4.6. Fluoride Downregulates BCL-2, FoxO1 mRNA and Protein Activity and Upregulates IL-6 mRNA Expression and Activity
4.7. Fluoride Inhibits Anitoxidant Activity Including SOD and PON1 Activity
4.7.1. Fluoride Inhibits PON1 Activity
4.7.2. Fluoride Inhibits Glutathione
5. Discussion
6. Additional Perspectives
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Factor | Effect of F | Contribution to Degenerative Eye Diseases |
---|---|---|
Enolase | ↓ | Loss of enolase induces cataractogenesis. τ-Crystallin, heat shock proteins, hypoxic stress proteins and c-Myc binding proteins possess enolase activity. These proteins are essential for lens function repair and protection. |
Heat Shock Proteins | ||
Hsp 40 | ↓ | Hsp 40 has been found to protect the lens from stress induced denaturation. |
Hsp 27 | ↑ | Hsp27 expression associated with AMD and cataracts. |
Hsp 70 | ↑ | Hsp70 expression associated with increased risk of cataracts and glaucoma |
FoxO proteins | ↓ | FoxO proteins regulate antioxidant enzymes. Down regulation of FoxO1 and FoxO3a expression contributes to degenerative eye disorders such as cataract formation. |
Na+, K+-ATPase | ↓ | Inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase leads to enhanced ROS production and oxidative stress. Loss of Na+, K+-ATPase associated with cataractogenesis and age-dependent degeneration in photoreceptors, suggesting a link between loss of Na+, K+-ATPase and AMD. Loss of Na+, K+-ATPase linked to hypertension. Hypertension is a risk factor for cataracts, AMD and glaucoma. |
PON1 | ↓ | PON1 is an antioxidant and reduces oxidative stress. Low PON1 activity associated with AMD and cataracts. |
IL-6 | ↑ | IL-6 has been shown to be a key player in chronic low-grade systemic inflammation. Associated with cataracts, AMD and glaucoma. |
Nrf2 | ↓ | Inhibition of dysregulation of Nrf2 pathway contributes to a state of chronic systemic inflammation with a diminished capacity to compensate for conditions of increased oxidative stress. Loss of Nrf2 is associated with AMD. |
NF-kB | ↑ | NF-kB plays a critical role in the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Expression of NF-kB linked to AMD, cataracts and glaucoma. |
BCL-2 | ↓ | Has anti-inflammatory properties, reduced expression associated with pathological states and degenerative eye diseases. |
Antioxidants | ↓ | Impaired antioxidant activity leads to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress strongly associated with AMD, cataracts and glaucoma. |
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Waugh, D.T. The Contribution of Fluoride to the Pathogenesis of Eye Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications for Public Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050856
Waugh DT. The Contribution of Fluoride to the Pathogenesis of Eye Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications for Public Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(5):856. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050856
Chicago/Turabian StyleWaugh, Declan Timothy. 2019. "The Contribution of Fluoride to the Pathogenesis of Eye Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications for Public Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 5: 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050856