Socioeconomic Differences and the Potential Role of Tribes in Young People’s Food and Drink Purchasing Outside School at Lunchtime
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background & Hypotheses
2.1. Consumer Tribes as A Temporary Escape
2.2. Enjoyment as a Social Facilitator
2.3. Tribes in Marketing
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Setting
3.2. Sample
3.3. Questionnaire
3.4. Variables
3.4.1. Food and Drink Intake
3.4.2. Expenditure
3.4.3. Susceptibility to Peer Influence
3.4.4. Shopping Enjoyment
3.4.5. Advertising and Endorsement Influence Scales
3.5. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.2. Hypothesis Testing
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions and Policy Implications
7. Limitations and Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Malik, V.S.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Global obesity: Trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2013, 9, 13–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hawkes, C.; Jewell, J.; Allen, K. A food policy package for healthy diets and the prevention of obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases: The NOURISHING framework. Obes. Rev. 2013, 14, 159–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheehan, P.; Sweeny, K.; Rasmussen, B.; Wils, A.; Friedman, H.S.; Mahon, J.; Patton, G.C.; Sawyer, S.M.; Howard, E.; Symons, J.; et al. Building the foundations for sustainable development: A case for global investment in the capabilities of adolescents. Lancet 2017, 390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mollborn, S.; Lawrence, E. Family, Peer, and School Influences on Children’s Developing Health Lifestyles. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2018, 59, 133–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Héroux, M.; Iannotti, R.J.; Currie, D.; Pickett, W.; Janssen, I. The food retail environment in school neighborhoods and its relation to lunchtime eating behaviors in youth from three countries. Health Place 2012, 18, 1240–1247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Masson, L.F.; Bromley, C.; Macdiarmid, J.; Craig, L.C.; Wills, W.; Tipping, S.; McNeill, G. Survey of Diet among Children in Scotland; Food Standards Agency in Scotland: Scotland, UK, 2012.
- Lachat, C.; Nago, E.; Verstraeten, R.; Roberfroid, D.; Van Camp, J.; Kolsteren, P. Eating out of home and its association with dietary intake: A systematic review of the evidence. Obes. Rev. 2012, 13, 329–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tyrrell, R.L.; Greenhalgh, F.; Hodgson, S.; Wills, W.J.; Mathers, J.C.; Adamson, A.J.; Lake, A.A. Food environments of young people: Linking individual behaviour to environmental context. J. Public Health 2016, 39, 95–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scottish Government. Obesity Indicators: Monitoring Progress for the Prevention of Obesity Route Map—December 2016 Report; Scottish Government: Edinburgh, UK, 2016.
- Bromley, C.; Tod, E.; McCartney, G. Obesity and Health Inequalities in Scotland; NHS Health Scotland: Scotland, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Lytle, L.A. Measuring the food environment: State of the science. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009, 36, S134–S144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fletcher, A.; Jamal, F.; Fitzgerald-Yau, N.; Bonell, C. ‘We’ve got some underground business selling junk food’: Qualitative evidence of the unintended effects of English school food policies. Sociology 2014, 48, 500–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stead, M.; McDermott, L.; MacKintosh, A.M.; Adamson, A. Why healthy eating is bad for young people’s health: Identity, belonging and food. Soc. Sci. Med. 2011, 72, 1131–1139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horta, A.; Truninger, M.; Alexandre, S.; Teixeira, J.; Aparecida da Silva, V. Children’s food meanings and eating contexts: Schools and their surroundings. Young Consum. 2013, 14, 312–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carroll-Scott, A.; Gilstad-Hayden, K.; Rosenthal, L.; Peters, S.M.; McCaslin, C.; Joyce, R.; Ickovics, J.R. Disentangling neighborhood contextual associations with child body mass index, diet, and physical activity: The role of built, socioeconomic, and social environments. Soc. Sci. Med. 2013, 95, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mueller, A.S.; Pearson, J.; Muller, C.; Frank, K.; Turner, A. Sizing up peers: Adolescent girls’ weight control and social comparison in the school context. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2010, 51, 64–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moschis, G.P.; Moore, R.L.; Stephens, L.F. Purchasing patterns of adolescent consumers. J. Retail. 1977, 53, 17–26. [Google Scholar]
- Sadeghirad, B.; Duhaney, T.; Motaghipisheh, S.; Campbell, N.; Johnston, B. Influence of unhealthy food and beverage marketing on children’s dietary intake and preference: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Obes. Rev. 2016, 17, 945–959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pudrovska, T.; Reither, E.N.; Logan, E.S.; Sherman-Wilkins, K.J. Gender and reinforcing associations between socioeconomic disadvantage and body mass over the life course. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2014, 55, 283–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beghin, L.; Dauchet, L.; De Vriendt, T.; Cuenca-Garcia, M.; Manios, Y.; Toti, E.; Plada, M.; Widhalm, K.; Repasy, J.; Huybrechts, I. Influence of parental socio-economic status on diet quality of European adolescents: Results from the HELENA study. Br. J. Nutr. 2014, 111, 1303–1312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nau, C.; Schwartz, B.S.; Bandeen-Roche, K.; Liu, A.; Pollak, J.; Hirsch, A.; Bailey-Davis, L.; Glass, T.A. Community socioeconomic deprivation and obesity trajectories in children using electronic health records. Obesity 2015, 23, 207–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rossen, L.M. Neighbourhood economic deprivation explains racial/ethnic disparities in overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in the USA. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2014, 68, 123–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burgoine, T.; Alvanides, S.; Lake, A.A. Assessing the obesogenic environment of North East England. Health Place 2011, 17, 738–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Macdiarmid, J.; Craig, L.C.; Wills, W.J.; Bromely, C.; Masson, L.F.; McNeill, G. Survey of Diet among Children in Scotland (2010)—Volume 2: Food and Drink Purchases around the School Day; Food Standards Agency Scotland: Aberdeen, UK, 2012.
- Whybrow, S.; Hollis, J.; Macdiarmid, J. Social deprivation is associated with poorer adherence to healthy eating dietary goals: Analysis of household food purchases. J. Public Health 2017, 40, e8–e15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cummins, S.; Smith, D.M.; Taylor, M.; Dawson, J.; Marshall, D.; Sparks, L.; Anderson, A.S. Variations in fresh fruit and vegetable quality by store type, urban–rural setting and neighbourhood deprivation in Scotland. Public Health Nutr. 2009, 12, 2044–2050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Forsyth, A.; Wall, M.; Larson, N.; Story, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Do adolescents who live or go to school near fast-food restaurants eat more frequently from fast-food restaurants? Health Place 2012, 18, 1261–1269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Backett-Milburn, K.C.; Wills, W.J.; Gregory, S.; Lawton, J. Making sense of eating, weight and risk in the early teenage years: Views and concerns of parents in poorer socio-economic circumstances. Soc. Sci. Med. 2006, 63, 624–635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Crawford, F.; Ellaway, A.; Mackison, D.; Mooney, J. ‘Is Eating Out of School a Healthy Option for Secondary Pupils?’ A Feasibility Study to Explore the Nutritional Quality of ‘out of school’ Foods Popular with School Pupils; Technical Report; Glasgow Centre for Population Health: Glasgow, UK, 2012.
- Ball, K.; Lamb, K.E.; Costa, C.; Cutumisu, N.; Ellaway, A.; Kamphuis, C.B.; Mentz, G.; Pearce, J.; Santana, P.; Santos, R. Neighbourhood socioeconomic disadvantage and fruit and vegetable consumption: A seven countries comparison. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2015, 12, 68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thornton, L.E.; Pearce, J.R.; Ball, K. Sociodemographic factors associated with healthy eating and food security in socio-economically disadvantaged groups in the UK and Victoria, Australia. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 17, 20–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Black, C.; Moon, G.; Baird, J. Dietary inequalities: What is the evidence for the effect of the neighbourhood food environment? Health Place 2014, 27, 229–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Black, C.; Ntani, G.; Kenny, R.; Tinati, T.; Jarman, M.; Lawrence, W.; Barker, M.; Inskip, H.; Cooper, C.; Moon, G. Variety and quality of healthy foods differ according to neighbourhood deprivation. Health Place 2012, 18, 1292–1299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hu, Y.; van Lenthe, F.J.; Mackenbach, J.P. Income inequality, life expectancy and cause-specific mortality in 43 European countries, 1987–2008: A fixed effects study. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2015, 30, 615–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beckfield, J. Does Income Inequality Harm Health? New Cross-National Evidence. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2004, 45, 231–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Backett-Milburn, K.C.; Wills, W.J.; Roberts, M.-L.; Lawton, J. Food, eating and taste: Parents’ perspectives on the making of the middle class teenager. Soc. Sci. Med. 2010, 71, 1316–1323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rummo, P.E.; Meyer, K.A.; Howard, A.G.; Shikany, J.M.; Guilkey, D.K.; Gordon-Larsen, P. Fast food price, diet behavior, and cardiometabolic health: Differential associations by neighborhood SES and neighborhood fast food restaurant availability in the CARDIA study. Health Place 2015, 35, 128–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lippert, A.M. Stuck in unhealthy places: How entering, exiting, and remaining in poor and nonpoor neighborhoods is associated with obesity during the transition to adulthood. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2016, 57, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cova, B. Community and consumption: Towards a definition of the “linking value” of product or services. Eur. J. Mark. 1997, 31, 297–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goulding, C.; Shankar, A.; Canniford, R. Learning to be tribal: Facilitating the formation of consumer tribes. Eur. J. Mark. 2013, 47, 813–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cova, B.; Cova, V. Tribal marketing: The tribalisation of society and its impact on the conduct of marketing. Eur. J. Mark. 2002, 36, 595–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, A. Subcultures or neo-tribes? Rethinking the relationship between youth, style and musical taste. Sociology 1999, 33, 599–617. [Google Scholar]
- Maffesoli, M. The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society; Sage: London, UK, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Goulding, C.; Shankar, A.; Elliott, R. Working weeks, rave weekends: Identity fragmentation and the emergence of new communities. Consum. Mark. Cult. 2002, 5, 261–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wills, W.J.; Backett-Milburn, K.; Gregory, S.; Lawton, J. The influence of the secondary school setting on the food practices of young teenagers from disadvantaged backgrounds in Scotland. Health Educ. Res. 2004, 20, 458–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cova, B.; Kozinets, R.V.; Shankar, A. Tribes, Inc.: The new world of tribalism. In Consumer Tribes; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Goulding, C.; Shankar, A.; Elliott, R.; Canniford, R. The marketplace management of illicit pleasure. J. Consum. Res. 2008, 35, 759–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Veloutsou, C.; Moutinho, L. Brand relationships through brand reputation and brand tribalism. J. Bus. Res. 2009, 62, 314–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sinclair, S.; Winkler, J. The School Fringe: What Pupils Buy and Eat from Shops Surrounding Secondary Schools; Nutrition Policy Unit, London Metopolitan University: London, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Stryker, S. Identity salience and role performance: The relevance of symbolic interaction theory for family research. J. Marriage Fam. 1968, 30, 558–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tajfel, H. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Osterman, K.F. Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Rev. Educ. Res. 2000, 70, 323–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mangleburg, T.F.; Doney, P.M.; Bristol, T. Shopping with friends and teens’ susceptibility to peer influence. J. Retail. 2004, 80, 101–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chebat, J.-C.; Sirgy, M.J.; St-James, V. Upscale image transfer from malls to stores: A self-image congruence explanation. J. Bus. Res. 2006, 59, 1288–1296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, X. How does shopping with others influence impulsive purchasing? J. Consum. Psychol. 2005, 15, 288–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yim, M.Y.-C.; Yoo, S.-C.; Sauer, P.L.; Seo, J.H. Hedonic shopping motivation and co-shopper influence on utilitarian grocery shopping in superstores. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 2014, 42, 528–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Castro, J.M. Family and friends produce greater social facilitation of food intake than other companions. Physiol. Behav. 1994, 56, 445–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brindal, E.; Wilson, C.; Mohr, P.; Wittert, G. Eating in groups: Do multiple social influences affect intake in a fast-food restaurant? J. Health Psychol. 2015, 20, 483–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McFerran, B.; Dahl, D.W.; Fitzsimons, G.J.; Morales, A.C. I’ll Have What She’s Having: Effects of Social Influence and Body Type on the Food Choices of Others. J. Consum. Res. 2010, 36, 915–929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bevelander, K.E.; Anschütz, D.J.; Engels, R.C. Social norms in food intake among normal weight and overweight x. Appetite 2012, 58, 864–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cruwys, T.; Bevelander, K.E.; Hermans, R.C. Social modeling of eating: A review of when and why social influence affects food intake and choice. Appetite 2015, 86, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herman, C.P. The social facilitation of eating. A review. Appetite 2015, 86, 61–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bell, R.; Pliner, P.L. Time to eat: The relationship between the number of people eating and meal duration in three lunch settings. Appetite 2003, 41, 215–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, Q.; Zhou, Y.; Ye, M.; Zhou, X. Perceived social support reduces the pain of spending money. J. Consum. Psychol. 2015, 25, 219–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nash, A.S.; Pine, K.J.; Messer, D.J. Television alcohol advertising: Do children really mean what they say? Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 2009, 27, 85–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kelly, B.; Halford, J.C.; Boyland, E.J.; Chapman, K.; Bautista-Castaño, I.; Berg, C.; Caroli, M.; Cook, B.; Coutinho, J.G.; Effertz, T. Television food advertising to children: A global perspective. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 1730–1736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferguson, C.J.; Muñoz, M.E.; Medrano, M.R. Advertising influences on young children’s food choices and parental influence. J. Pediatrics 2012, 160, 452–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cairns, G.; Angus, K.; Hastings, G.; Caraher, M. Systematic reviews of the evidence on the nature, extent and effects of food marketing to children. A retrospective summary. Appetite 2013, 62, 209–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCracken, G. Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods. J. Consum. Res. 1986, 13, 71–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lockwood, P.; Kunda, Z. Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1997, 73, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerr, M.A.; Rennie, K.L.; McCaffrey, T.M.; Wallace, J.M.W.; Hannon-Fletcher, M.P.; Livingstone, M.B.E. Snacking patterns among adolescents: A comparison of type, frequency and portion size between Britain in 1997 and Northern Ireland in 2005. Br. J. Nutr. 2009, 101, 122–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scottish Government. The Nutritional Requirements for Food and Drink in Schools (Scotland) Regulations 2008 No. 265; Department of Education: Scotland, UK, 2008.
- Bearden, W.O.; Netemeyer, R.G.; Teel, J.E. Measurement of consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence. J. Consum. Res. 1989, 15, 473–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kline, P. Handbook of Psychological Testing, 2nd ed.; Routledge: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Spencer, N.H.; Lay, M.; Kevan De Lopez, L. Normal enough? Tools to aid decision making. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol 2017, 20, 167–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sichert-Hellert, W.; Beghin, L.; De Henauw, S.; Grammatikaki, E.; Hallström, L.; Manios, Y.; Mesana, M.I.; Molnár, D.; Dietrich, S.; Piccinelli, R. Nutritional knowledge in European adolescents: Results from the HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) study. Public Health Nutr. 2011, 14, 2083–2091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, H.; Harris, K.M.; Gordon-Larsen, P. Life Course Perspectives on the Links between Poverty and Obesity During the Transition to Young Adulthood. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 2008, 28, 505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osei-Assibey, G.; Dick, S.; Macdiarmid, J.; Semple, S.; Reilly, J.J.; Ellaway, A.; Cowie, H.; McNeill, G. The influence of the food environment on overweight and obesity in young children: A systematic review. BMJ Open 2012, 2, e001538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Macdiarmid, J.; Loe, J.; Craig, L.; Masson, L.; Holmes, B.; McNeill, G. Meal and snacking patterns of school-aged children in Scotland. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63, 1297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Macintyre, S.; Ellaway, A.; Cummins, S. Place effects on health: How can we conceptualise, operationalise and measure them? Soc. Sci. Med. 2002, 55, 125–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shildrick, T.; MacDonald, R. In defence of subculture: Young people, leisure and social divisions. J. Youth Stud. 2006, 9, 125–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pilkington, H.; Johnson, R. Peripheral youth: Relations of identity and power in global/local context. Eur. J. Cult. Stud. 2003, 6, 259–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shildrick, T. Youth culture, subculture and the importance of neighbourhood. Young 2006, 14, 61–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hollingworth, S. Performances of social class, race and gender through youth subculture: Putting structure back in to youth subcultural studies. J. Youth Stud. 2015, 18, 1237–1256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crawford, F.; Mackison, D.; Mooney, J.D.; Ellaway, A. Observation and assessment of the nutritional quality of ‘out of school’foods popular with secondary school pupils at lunchtime. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ellaway, A.; Macdonald, L.; Lamb, K.; Thornton, L.; Day, P.; Pearce, J. Do obesity-promoting food environments cluster around socially disadvantaged schools in Glasgow, Scotland? Health Place 2012, 18, 1335–1340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wills, W.J.; Danesi, G.; Kapetanaki, A.B. Lunchtime food and drink purchasing: Young people’s practices, preferences and power within and beyond the school gate. Camb. J. Educ. 2016, 46, 195–210. [Google Scholar]
- Sommer, R.; Wynes, M.; Brinkley, G. Social facilitation effects in shopping behavior. Environ. Behav. 1992, 24, 285–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, P.M.; Dale, R. With or without you: The positive and negative influence of retail companions. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 2014, 21, 780–787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Festinger, L. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum. Relat. 1954, 7, 117–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.; Li, S.; Burke, R.R.; Leykin, A. An examination of social influence on shopper behavior using video tracking data. J. Mark. 2014, 78, 24–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pozharliev, R.; Verbeke, W.J.; Van Strien, J.W.; Bagozzi, R.P. Merely Being with You Increases My Attention to Luxury Products: Using EEG to Understand Consumers’ Emotional Experience with Luxury Branded Products. J. Mark. Res. 2015, 52, 546–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Argo, J.J.; Dahl, D.W.; Manchanda, R.V. The influence of a mere social presence in a retail context. J. Consum. Res. 2005, 32, 207–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Redd, M.; De Castro, J.M. Social facilitation of eating: Effects of social instruction on food intake. Physiol. Behav. 1992, 52, 749–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muratore, I. Teens as impulsive buyers: What is the role of price? Int. J. Retail Distrib. Manag. 2016, 44, 1166–1180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yip, T.C.; Chan, K.; Poon, E. Attributes of young consumers’ favorite retail shops: A qualitative study. J. Consum. Mark. 2012, 29, 545–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hodkinson, P. Youth cultures and the rest of life: Subcultures, post-subcultures and beyond. J. Youth Stud. 2016, 19, 629–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
School ID | SIMD Decile a | SES Classification | Girls | Boys | TOTAL |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sch1 | 1 | Low | 26 | 24 | 50 |
Sch2 | 1 | Low | 10 | 22 | 32 |
Sch3 | 1 | Low | 14 | 13 | 27 |
Sch4 | 3 | High | 30 | 24 | 54 |
Sch5 | 1 | Low | 24 | 16 | 40 |
Sch6 | 3 | High | 1 | 11 | 12 |
Sch7 | 2 | High | 18 | 10 | 28 |
123 | 120 | 243 |
Construct | Number of Items in Scale | Cronbach’s Alpha | N | Mean | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Susceptibility to normative peer pressure | 2 | 0.86 | 211 | 5.58 | 3.50 |
Shopping enjoyment | 2 | 0.79 | 211 | 10.02 | 3.38 |
Advertising influence | 3 | 0.95 | 211 | 8.18 | 5.32 |
Endorsement influence | 3 | 0.89 | 211 | 8.37 | 5.32 |
Mean (Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval *) | Max Value from Lunch Intake Based on NSS ** [72] | % of Pupils Above NSS | |
---|---|---|---|
Energy (KJ) | 2019.79 (1827.26, 2205.39) | 2776 *** | 28% |
Fat (g) | 19.57 (16.85, 22.23) | 25.8 | 32% |
Saturated fat (g) | 6.48 (5.39, 7.51) | 8.1 | 29% |
Salt (g) | 2.05 (1.30, 2.62) | 2.06 | 31% |
Sugar (g) | 31.83 (28.54, 35.08) | 19.5 | 64% |
Expenditure (£) | 2.16 (1.95, 2.36) | n/a | n/a |
Mean and Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval * for “low” SES | Mean and Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval * for “high” SES | |
---|---|---|
Energy (KJ) | 2032.75 (1764.56, 2301.76) | 1999.24 (1740.92, 2256.85) |
Fat (g) | 20.30 (16.31, 24.04) | 18.42 (14.95, 21.67) |
Saturated fat (g) | 7.30 (5.72, 8.80) | 5.17 (3.80, 6.37) |
Salt (g) | 1.77 (0.98, 2.34) | 2.48 (1.06, 3.59) |
Sugar (g) | 31.56 (27.31, 35.43) | 32.27 (26.50, 37.63) |
Spearman’s Correlation and Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval * | |
---|---|
Energy | 0.18 (0.05, 0.31) |
Fat | 0.19 (0.06, 0.33) |
Saturated fat | 0.15 (0.01, 0.28) |
Salt | 0.13 (0.01, 0.26) |
Sugar | 0.01 (−0.12, 0.15) |
Expenditure | 0.18 (0.05, 0.31) |
Marketing Technique | Spearman’s Correlation and Bootstrap 95% Confidence Interval * | |
---|---|---|
Normative Peer Influence | Advertising | 0.40 (0.28, 0.54) |
Endorsement | 0.43 (0.31, 0.56) |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kapetanaki, A.B.; Wills, W.J.; Danesi, G.; Spencer, N.H. Socioeconomic Differences and the Potential Role of Tribes in Young People’s Food and Drink Purchasing Outside School at Lunchtime. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142447
Kapetanaki AB, Wills WJ, Danesi G, Spencer NH. Socioeconomic Differences and the Potential Role of Tribes in Young People’s Food and Drink Purchasing Outside School at Lunchtime. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(14):2447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142447
Chicago/Turabian StyleKapetanaki, Ariadne Beatrice, Wendy J. Wills, Giada Danesi, and Neil H. Spencer. 2019. "Socioeconomic Differences and the Potential Role of Tribes in Young People’s Food and Drink Purchasing Outside School at Lunchtime" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 14: 2447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142447
APA StyleKapetanaki, A. B., Wills, W. J., Danesi, G., & Spencer, N. H. (2019). Socioeconomic Differences and the Potential Role of Tribes in Young People’s Food and Drink Purchasing Outside School at Lunchtime. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(14), 2447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142447