A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Past Century Paradigm with Two Parenting Stages Perspectives
1.2. The Three Parenting Stages Perspectives
1.3. The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Instruments
2.3.1. Parental Socialization
2.3.2. Multidimensional Self-Concept
2.3.3. Internalization of Social Values
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Parenting Style Groups
3.2. Preliminary Multivariate Analysis for Multidimensional Self-Esteem
3.3. Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem
3.4. Demographic Variables and Self-Esteem
3.5. Preliminary Multivariate Analysis for Internalization of Social Values
3.6. Parenting Styles and Internalization of Social Values
3.7. Demographic Variables and Internalization of Social Values
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total | Authoritative | Indulgent | Authoritarian | Neglectful | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | 2445 | 659 | 572 | 574 | 650 |
Percent | 100 | 26.8 | 23.3 | 23.4 | 26.5 |
Warmth | |||||
Mean | 3.15 | 3.49 | 3.47 | 2.79 | 2.78 |
SD | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.31 | 0.32 |
Strictness | |||||
Mean | 1.62 | 1.88 | 1.37 | 1.87 | 1.35 |
SD | 0.38 | 0.32 | 0.21 | 0.33 | 0.21 |
Self-Esteem | Parenting Style | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Authoritative | Indulgent | Authoritarian | Neglectful | F(3, 2391) | |
Academic | 6.82 2 | 7.10 1 | 6.20 3 | 6.39 3 | 28.85 *** |
(1.76) | (1.67) | (1.81) | (1.88) | ||
Social | 7.47 1 | 7.65 1 | 7.10 2 | 7.22 2 | 14.88 *** |
(1.45) | (1.31) | (1.48) | (1.39) | ||
Emotional | 5.30 2 | 5.81 1 | 5.28 2 | 5.88 1 | 16.51 *** |
(1.9) | (1.98) | (1.95) | (1.88) | ||
Family | 8.43 2 | 8.90 1 | 7.37 4 | 8.13 4 | 100.01 *** |
(1.36) | (1.00) | (1.89) | (1.49) | ||
Physical | 6.38 a | 6.60 1 | 6.07 2,b | 6.12 2 | 10.54 *** |
(1.91) | (1.83) | (1.82) | (1.81) |
Outcome Measures | Sex | Age | Country | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | Male | F(1, 2391) | 11–15 Years | 16–19 Years | F(1, 2391) | Spain | United States | Germany | Brazil | F(3, 2391) | |
Self-esteem | |||||||||||
Academic | 6.87 | 6.36 | 63.248 *** | 6.71 | 6.53 | 3.469 | 6.37 3 | 6.81 2 | 6.21 3 | 7.14 1 | 41.518 *** |
(1.78) | (1.82) | (1.88) | (1.73) | (1.85) | (1.83) | (1.73) | (1.70) | ||||
Social | 7.36 | 7.36 | 0.132 | 7.46 | 7.23 | 14.139 *** | 7.43 | 7.43 | 7.27 | 7.31 | 1.533 |
(1.50) | (1.34) | (1.39) | (1.46) | (1.35) | (1.43) | (1.52) | (1.41) | ||||
Emotional | 5.19 | 5.98 | 112.775 *** | 5.52 | 5.62 | 0.158 | 5.38 2 | 6.01 1 | 6.04 1 | 5.01 3 | 47.424 *** |
(1.99) | (1.80) | (1.95) | (1.94) | (1.94) | (1.88) | (1.87) | (1.89) | ||||
Family | 8.22 | 8.20 | 0.231 | 8.30 | 8.11 | 13.873 *** | 8.28 1 | 8.04 2 | 8.48 1 | 8.03 2 | 13.459 *** |
(1.64) | (1.48) | (1.53) | (1.59) | (1.52) | (1.62) | (1.34) | (1.70) | ||||
Physical | 5.96 | 6.66 | 77.378 *** | 6.36 | 6.20 | 2.032 | 6.02 2 | 6.59 1 | 6.01 2 | 6.60 1 | 19.321 *** |
(1.87) | (1.77) | (1.86) | (1.84) | (1.84) | (1.81) | (1.77) | (1.89) | ||||
Internalization of social values | |||||||||||
Self-transcendence | |||||||||||
Universalism | 7.95 | 7.64 | 50.842 *** | 7.86 | 7.73 | 0.475 | 7.73 2,a | 7.54 2 | 7.37 2,b | 8.46 1 | 99.959 *** |
(1.21) | (1.43) | (1.36) | (1.29) | (1.22) | (1.26) | (1.35) | (1.23) | ||||
Benevolence | 8.40 | 7.99 | 74.247 *** | 8.18 | 8.23 | 2.432 | 7.95 3 | 8.26 2 | 8.04 3 | 8.56 1 | 37.326 *** |
(1.17) | (1.37) | (1.33) | (1.23) | (1.23) | (1.18) | (1.24) | (1.38) | ||||
Conservation | |||||||||||
Security | 7.85 | 7.65 | 15.907 *** | 7.80 | 7.71 | 3.395 | 7.48 2,b | 7.58 2 | 7.73 2,a | 8.20 1 | 41.475 *** |
(1.34) | (1.41) | (1.36) | (1.4) | (1.30) | (1.29) | (1.38) | (1.41) | ||||
Conformity | 8.10 | 7.81 | 30.738 *** | 7.98 | 7.93 | 0.093 | 7.76 2 | 7.94 2,a | 7.67 2,b | 8.44 1 | 46.350 *** |
(1.39) | (1.52) | (1.48) | (1.44) | (1.43) | (1.39) | (1.45) | (1.44) | ||||
Tradition | 6.78 | 6.73 | 3.610 | 6.81 | 6.70 | 0.067 | 6.41 3 | 6.93 2 | 6.11 4 | 7.58 1 | 117.692 *** |
(1.64) | (1.68) | (1.68) | (1.64) | (1.42) | (1.48) | (1.74) | (1.57) |
Socialization Outcomes | Parenting Style | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Authoritative | Indulgent | Authoritarian | Neglectful | F(3, 2391) | |
Internalization of social values | |||||
Self-transcendence | |||||
Universalism | 7.97 1 | 8.11 1 | 7.49 2 | 7.64 2 | 28.27 *** |
(1.21) | (1.23) | (1.45) | (1.34) | ||
Benevolence | 8.39 1 | 8.48 1 | 7.87 3 | 8.06 2 | 27.14 *** |
(1.15) | (1.12) | (1.43) | (1.33) | ||
Conservation | |||||
Security | 8.03 1 | 8.02 1 | 7.45 2 | 7.52 2 | 31.05 *** |
(1.23) | (1.29) | (1.52) | (1.37) | ||
Conformity | 8.23 1 | 8.33 1 | 7.51 3 | 7.76 2 | 43.71 *** |
(1.31) | (1.26) | (1.63) | (1.49) | ||
Tradition | 6.95 1 | 7.12 1 | 6.45 2 | 6.52 2 | 24.51 *** |
(1.58) | (1.57) | (1.70) | (1.70) |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Garcia, F.; Serra, E.; Garcia, O.F.; Martinez, I.; Cruise, E. A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132333
Garcia F, Serra E, Garcia OF, Martinez I, Cruise E. A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(13):2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132333
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcia, Fernando, Emilia Serra, Oscar F. Garcia, Isabel Martinez, and Edie Cruise. 2019. "A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 13: 2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132333