Exploring Neighborhood Environments and Active Commuting in Chennai, India
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Methods
2.1. Sampling and Recruitment
2.2. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
3. Measures
3.1. Main Outcome
3.2. Independent Variables and Covariates
3.2.1. Socio-Demographic and Individual Characteristics
3.2.2. Home Neighborhood Built Environment Features
4. Data Analysis
5. Results
6. Discussion
6.1. Principal Findings
6.2. Comparison with Existing Literature
7. Limitations
8. Implications
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Availability of Data and Material
Abbreviations
NCDs | non-communicable diseases |
LMICs | low-and-middle-income countries |
References
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Descriptive Characteristics | Statistic |
---|---|
Age (in years), mean (SD) | 37.9 (15.3) |
Gender, n (%) | |
Female | 199 (54.2) |
Male | 166 (45.2) |
Marital Status, n (%) | |
Married | 226 (61.2) |
Not married | 143 (38.8) |
Religion, n (%) | |
Hindu | 304 (82.2) |
non-Hindu | 65 (17.6) |
Educational Level, n (%) | |
Uneducated | 48 (13.0) |
Primary–middle school | 57 (15.5) |
High school or diploma | 79 (21.5) |
Graduate or professional | 184 (49.7) |
Monthly Family Income in United States (U.S.) Dollars, n (%) | |
≤80 | 74 (25.3) |
81–200 | 43 (14.7) |
201–549 | 24 (8.2) |
≥550 | 152 (51.9) |
Work Status, n (%) | |
Unemployed | 134 (37.5) |
Blue collar | 112 (31.4) |
White collar | 111 (31.1) |
Physical Activity Levels, n (%) | |
Walk | 40 (10.8) |
Bicycle | 7 (1.9) |
Public transport (Bus, local/suburban train, or auto rickshaw) | 52 (14.1) |
Private transport (car, motorcycle, or scooter) | 103 (27.8) |
Multi-modal | 21 (5.7) |
Type of Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 |
---|---|---|
Dependent Variables | Active travel vs. private transport (reference category) | Public transit vs. private transport (reference category) |
Independent Variables |
| |
Covariate/Controls |
|
Reference: Private Transport (n = 111) | Multi-Modal or Active Commuting (n = 56) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted logistic regressions | Adjusted logistic regressions | |||||
OR | 95% CIs | p | aOR | 95% CIs | p | |
Public transit access | ||||||
Transit stop within a 10-min walk from home (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 4.5 | 2.1–9.6 | <0.001 | 5.0 | 1.7–14.4 | 0.003 |
Commuting distance (reference: >15 km) | ||||||
1–5 km | 22.5 | 2.8–179.4 | 0.003 | 6.4 | 0.7–55.4 | 0.09 |
5.1–10 km | 2.1 | 0.2–25.3 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0–0.0 | 1.0 |
10.1–15 km | 1.9 | 0.2–22.7 | 0.6 | 1.6 | 0.1–20.4 | 0.7 |
Residential density (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 2.2 | 1.1–4.2 | 0.02 | 1.1 | 0.4–2.7 | 0.9 |
Land-use mix—diversity (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 7.7 | 3.5–17.0 | <0.001 | 6.8 | 2.3–20.6 | 0.001 |
Land-use mix—access (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.5 | 0.2–1.0 | 0.05 | 0.4 | 0.1–1.2 | 0.1 |
Street connectivity (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.2 | 0.1–0.4 | <0.001 | 0.2 | 0.1–0.6 | 0.003 |
Infrastructure for walking or bicycling (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 2.1 | 1.0–4.5 | 0.05 | 2.6 | 0.9–7.1 | 0.07 |
Safety from traffic (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.8 | 0.4–1.7 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.3–2.3 | 0.7 |
Safety from crime (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.2 | 0.1–0.4 | <0.001 | 0.2 | 0.1–0.6 | 0.003 |
Aesthetics | ||||||
Agree | 0.3 | 0.1–0.7 | 0.01 | 0.2 | 0.0–1.0 | 0.05 |
NEWS-India conceptual score (reference: Low) | 2.1 | 1.1–4.1 | 0.03 | 1.1 | 0.4–2.6 | 0.9 |
High | ||||||
NEWS-Chennai composite score (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 2.1 | 1.1–4.1 | 0.03 | 1.1 | 0.4–2.6 | 0.9 |
Reference: Private Transport (n = 111) | Public Transit (n = 52) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted logistic regressions | Adjusted logistic regressions | |||||
OR | 95% CIs | p | aOR | 95% CIs | p | |
Public transit access | ||||||
Transit stop within a 10-min walk from home (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 3.7 | 1.7–8.1 | 0.001 | 2.5 | 0.9–6.9 | 0.08 |
Commuting distance (reference: >15 km) | ||||||
1–5 km | 0.8 | 0.3–2.0 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.1–1.2 | 0.1 |
5.1–10 km | 0.8 | 0.3–2.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.1–1.5 | 0.2 |
10.1–15 km | 0.6 | 0.2–1.9 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1–1.3 | 0.1 |
Residential density (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 1.2 | 0.6–2.4 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.3–1.8 | 0.5 |
Land-use mix—diversity (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 5.2 | 2.3–11.7 | <0.001 | 5.2 | 1.8–14.9 | 0.002 |
Land-use mix—access (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.4 | 0.2–0.9 | 0.02 | 0.6 | 0.2–1.7 | 0.4 |
Street connectivity (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.2 | 0.1–0.4 | <0.001 | 0.2 | 0.1–0.6 | 0.004 |
Infrastructure for walking or bicycling (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.9 | 0.4–2.2 | 0.8 | 1.3 | 0.4–3.7 | 0.7 |
Safety from traffic (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 1.7 | 0.9–3.4 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 0.8–4.5 | 0.2 |
Safety from crime (reference: Disagree) | ||||||
Agree | 0.6 | 0.3–1.1 | 0.09 | 0.8 | 0.4–2.0 | 0.7 |
Aesthetics | ||||||
Agree | 0.7 | 0.3–1.6 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 0.4–2.6 | 0.9 |
NEWS-India conceptual score (reference: Low) | 1.3 | 0.7–2.4 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.4–2.0 | 0.7 |
High | ||||||
NEWS-Chennai composite score (reference: Low) | ||||||
High | 1.3 | 0.7–2.4 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.4–2.0 | 0.7 |
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Adlakha, D.; Hipp, J.A.; Sallis, J.F.; Brownson, R.C. Exploring Neighborhood Environments and Active Commuting in Chennai, India. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091840
Adlakha D, Hipp JA, Sallis JF, Brownson RC. Exploring Neighborhood Environments and Active Commuting in Chennai, India. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(9):1840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091840
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdlakha, Deepti, J. Aaron Hipp, James F. Sallis, and Ross C. Brownson. 2018. "Exploring Neighborhood Environments and Active Commuting in Chennai, India" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 9: 1840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091840