Ultraviolet Radiation Albedo and Reflectance in Review: The Influence to Ultraviolet Exposure in Occupational Settings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Definitions of albedo and reflectance, including the range of how the terms are used in the literature.
- Reported albedo and reflectance measurements focusing on local or immediate surroundings with specific focus on UV albedo or reflectance. Total solar albedo or reflectance papers that do not specifically refer to UV radiation will not be considered here.
- Similar surface types will be grouped for comparison and visually analysed if sufficient data is available, otherwise data will be tabulated.
- Broadband and spectral measurements will be presented separately.
- Method of measurement, including reviewing range of devices implemented.
- Review the influence of UV albedo/reflectance on individual UV exposure.
2. Albedo and Reflectance Definitions
3. Albedo and Reflectance Measurements
3.1. UV Albedo Measurements—Broadband
3.2. UV Albedo Measurements—Spectral
3.3. UV Reflectance
4. Measurement Design
5. Influence on Personal UV Exposure by Reflected UV Radiation
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Term | Behaviour of Radiation from Source or Recorded at Detector |
---|---|
Directional | Highly collimated (narrow focus beam) |
Conical | Medium collimated source (may be considered broad beam) |
Hemispherical | Limited collimated source |
ID | Author-Date Identifier | Instrument Used | Light Source | Measurement Type | Method | Location | Distance from Surface |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Diffey et al., 1995 [26] | Double GaP photodiode Radiometer Calibrated to spectroradiometer + diffuse reflectance spectrometer | Sun | Broadband and spectral (relative to standard white reflectance surface) | Upwelling and downwelling irradiance measured concurrently | Canada England Saudi Arabia | Not stated |
2 | Reuder et al., 2007 [34] | Radiometer (UV-S-E-T 001) Erythemal radiation reflected | Sun | Broadband | Increase in UVIndex (ratio) | Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia | 2.0 m from ground |
3 | McKenzie 1996 [32] | Erythemal monitor spectroradiometer | Sun | Broadband | Upwelling and downwelling irradiance measured consecutively | New Zealand | Assumed 1.6m height comparable to spectral Grass approx. 30 cm height |
4 | Blumthaler & Ambach 1988 [23] | R-B meter, Star pyranometer | Direct sunlight & overcast sky | Broadband | Erythemal albedo. Also: Total solar (0.3 to 3 µm) albedo consecutive | Alpine regions Austria | 0.3–0.5 m from ground |
5 | Lester & Parisi 2002 [30] | Spectro-radiometer (integrated) | Sun | Spectral & Broadband + Biologically weighted | Upwelling and downwelling, sun normal, consecutive | Toowoomba, Australia | 1.7 m from surface |
6 | Feister & Grewe 1995 [27] | Spectro-radiometer (integrated up to 315 nm) OL752/10 Optronic Laboratories Biologically weighted for different spectra | Sun | Spectral | UVB Upwelling and downwelling irradiance measured consecutively | Germany | 2.0 m from ground |
7 | ICNIRP 2007 [29] a—reported in text Section 2.2.2 b—reported in Section 4.4 and Table B-7 | Unknown Diffuse reflectance ICNIRP effective solar UVB | Assumed sun | Broadband | Not stated | Not stated | Not stated |
8 | Sliney 1986 [14] | International Light Model 730 UV radiometer (295–315 nm) calibrated to spectroradiometer | Sun | Broadband | Upwelling and downwelling irradiance (diffuse) measured consecutively | Not stated | Not stated |
9 | Heisler & Grant 2000 [28] | Refer to ID 4 [23] & ID 8 [14] | Reports Blumthaler and Ambach 1998 [23] and Sliney 1986 [14] | ||||
10 | Rosenthal 1988 [35] | SCS280 detector Radiometer (295 nm to 350 nm) | Assumed sun | Broadband | Upwelling and downwelling measured consecutively | Upwelling measure 4 feet from ground | |
11 | Correa & Ceballos 2008 [25] | UVB Biometers (501) × 2 1 inverted—“albedometer” | Sun | Broadband | Upwelling and downwelling irradiance measured concurrently | Brazil | Upwelling measure 0.4 m from ground |
12 | Webb et al., 2000 [42] | Spectroradiometer—Bifurcated optics (top and bottom of Cessna) | Sun | Spectral | Upwelling and downwelling irradiance measured concurrently | North-west coast England | Upwelling irradiance (0.5m from ground) Downwelling irradiance (1.1 m from ground) Air based ranging from 700 ft to 5500 ft |
13 | Castro et al., 2001 [24] | Eppley radiometer (Model 8-48) | Sun | Broadband | Downwelling to upwelling | Mexico City urban and rural | Height not stated |
14 | Lin et al., 2011 [31] | (B&W Tek, BRC112F) spectrometer | UVB lamps Philips TL20W/01 | Spectral converted to broadband | Reflectance reference from silicon standard | Laboratory | 0.1 m from surface |
15 | Parker et al., 2000 [33] | Beckman 5240 Spectrophotometer with integrating sphere | Solar exposure | Broadband | Reflected irradiance to incident irradiance (15°) | Florida, FL, USA | Not stated |
% Albedo ID | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 & 9 | 5 | 6 | 7a | 7b | 8 & 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | Min | Max | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface Type | ||||||||||||||||
Loam | 4.4 | - | - | 4.4 | ||||||||||||
Bare ground | 3.2 | 4–6 a | 3.9 | 3.2 | 6 | 4.3 | ||||||||||
Salt lake | 69 ± 2 | - | - | 69 | ||||||||||||
Sandy soil | 5.9 | 2–3 | 2 | 5.9 | 3.63 | |||||||||||
White sandy soil | 9.1 | 9.1 | ||||||||||||||
Sand (freshwater) | 8.9 | 9.1 | 15.2 | 15–30 b | 7.1 c | 7.1 | 30 | 14.22 | ||||||||
Beach sand (wet) | 7 | 2.4 d | 2.4 | 7 | 4.7 | |||||||||||
Beach sand (dry) | 15–18 | 15–18 | 4.2 e | 4.2 | 18 | 14.04 | ||||||||||
White clay | 12 | - | - | 12 | ||||||||||||
Primitive rock | 3.7 | - | - | 3.7 | ||||||||||||
Limestone | 11.2 | - | - | 11.2 | ||||||||||||
Flower bed | 2.6 | - | - | 2.6 | ||||||||||||
Mown grass | 1.8 f 1.2 g 1.4 h | 0.8–1.2 | 2.0–3.7 | 1.1 i 1.0 j | 0–1.6 | 1–5 | 0 | 3.7 | 1.75 | |||||||
Long grass | 0.5–1.0 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 0.5 | 1.7 | 1.07 | ||||||||||
Lawn | 1–3 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 1.1–1.4 | 1 | 3.7 | 2.1 | |||||||||
Alfalfa | 1.8 | - | - | 1.8 | ||||||||||||
Clover | 0.8 | - | - | 0.8 | ||||||||||||
Pasture | 4.9 | 0.8–1.6 | 0.8 | 4.9 | 2.43 | |||||||||||
Oats | 1.7 | - | - | 1.7 | ||||||||||||
Rye | 1.7 | - | - | 1.7 | ||||||||||||
Straw | 4.3 | - | - | 4.3 | ||||||||||||
Wheat | 1 | - | - | 1 | ||||||||||||
Lake side water | 3.2 | 4.8 | 2.7–3.9 | 2.7 | 4.8 | 3.65 | ||||||||||
River side water | 3 | - | - | 3 | ||||||||||||
Fresh water over gravel (0.5 m) | 1.8 | - | - | 1.8 | ||||||||||||
Surf | 20 | 25–30 | 25–30 | 20 | 30 | 26 | ||||||||||
Snow | 76.2 | 90 | 88 | 88 | 76.2 | 90 | 85.55 | |||||||||
Dirty snow | 59 | - | - | 59 | ||||||||||||
New dry snow | 94.4 | 85 | 85 | 94.4 | 89.7 | |||||||||||
New wet snow | 79.2 | - | - | 79.2 | ||||||||||||
Old dry snow | 82.2 | 50 | 50 | 82.2 | 66.1 | |||||||||||
Old wet snow | 74.4 | - | - | 74.4 | ||||||||||||
Most ground surfaces | >10 | - | - |
% Albedo ID | 1 | 3 | 4 & 9 | 5 | 6 | 7b | 8 & 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | min | max | mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface Type | ||||||||||||||||
Concrete (new) | 15.8 | 9.8 | 10–12 | 14.6 | 9.8 | 15.2 | 12.44 | |||||||||
Concrete | 8.2 | 9.2 | 8–12 | 7.0–8.2 | 10–11 k | 9.7 | 7 | 12 | 9.26 | |||||||
Wet concrete | 8 | - | - | 8 | ||||||||||||
Concrete/pebble tile | 12.4 | - | - | 12.4 | ||||||||||||
White concrete tile | 22 | - | - | 22 | ||||||||||||
Ceramic tile—porcelain —stoneware —vitrified mosaic | 11.48 17.30 33.22 | - - - | - - - | 11.48 17.30 33.22 | ||||||||||||
Gravel path | 8.2 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 8.2 | 7 | |||||||||||
Asphalt | 5.5 | 5–9 black | 4.1–5.0 l 5.0–8.9 m | 2-7 | 4.2–9.2 | 2 | 9 | 5.90 | ||||||||
Tar sealed road | 6 | - | - | 6 | ||||||||||||
Tarmac road | 6.5 f 5.5 g 5.7 h | 9.8–15 n 9–9.8 o | 5.5 | 15 | 8.76 | |||||||||||
Tennis court | 2.9 | - | - | 2.9 | ||||||||||||
Wooden boards (dock) | 4.4 | 5-7 | 6.4 | 4.4 | 7 | 5.7 | ||||||||||
Natural clear wood | 2.6 | 5.2 | 2.6 | 5.2 | 3.9 | |||||||||||
White painted wood | 4.2 | - | - | 4.2 | ||||||||||||
Black painted wood | 2.7 | 6.5 | 2.7 | 6.5 | 24.6 | |||||||||||
Enamel paint (white/red) | 5.1 | - | - | 5.1 | ||||||||||||
Black butyl rubber roof | 5.1 | - | - | 5.1 | ||||||||||||
Stainless steel opaque plate | 4.3 | - | - | 4.3 | ||||||||||||
Steel plate—colour coating | 8.86 s–13.35 t | 8.86 | 13.35 | 11.11 | ||||||||||||
Shiny corrugated iron | 18.1 | 30 p (25– 32) q | 18.1 | 30 | 24.05 | |||||||||||
Pale pink corrugated iron | 3–12 p (3–6) q | - | - | 7.5 | ||||||||||||
White paint—metal oxide | 22 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 22 | 19.75 | |||||||||||
Aluminium-weathered | 13 | 75 r | 13 | 75 | 44 | |||||||||||
Unpainted galvanized tin | 29.3 | - | - | 29.3 | ||||||||||||
White fibre glass | 9.1 | - | - | 9.1 | ||||||||||||
White formica | 7.9 | - | - | 7.9 | ||||||||||||
Polycarbonate hollow sheet | 8.46 | - | - | 8.46 | ||||||||||||
Pottery wall tile | 12.35 | - | - | 12.35 | ||||||||||||
Red brick | 4.5–7 | 4.5 | 7 | 5.75 |
Berdahl & Bretz | Solar | UV | VIS | NIR | Parker et al. | Solar | UV | VIS | NIR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asphalt Shingle Reflectance | Shingle Colour | ||||||||
black | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | Generic Black | 5 | 4.6 | 5.3 | 4.8 |
Onyx Black | 3.4 | 3.7 | 3.5 | 3.3 | |||||
white | 21 | 6 | 24 | 21 | Generic White | 25.3 | 9.9 | 27 | 25.2 |
Shasta White | 26.1 | 11.5 | 29.6 | 24.2 | |||||
ISP K-711 “white” | 31.1 | 12.2 | 34.4 | 29.9 | |||||
Generic Grey | 21.7 | 10.1 | 23.1 | 21.7 | |||||
gray | 8 | 6 | 8 | 9 | Ocean Gray | 11.7 | 7.2 | 12.3 | 11.5 |
antique silver | 20 | 6 | 22 | 19 | Aspen Gray | 17.8 | 8.9 | 19.5 | 17.2 |
saddle tan | 16 | 5 | 16 | 18 | Desert Tan | 12 | 4.3 | 11.3 | 13.5 |
light brown | 19 | 7 | 19 | 20 | Beachwood Sand | 20 | 7.5 | 20.5 | 20.8 |
medium light brown | 10 | 5 | 10 | 11 | Island Brown | 8.7 | 4.4 | 7.8 | 10 |
medium brown | 12 | 6 | 12 | 12 | Autumn Brown | 9.6 | 3.9 | 8.6 | 11.1 |
dark brown | 8 | 5 | 8 | 9 | Weathered Wood | 8.2 | 5.4 | 8.4 | 8.3 |
green | 19 | 8 | 21 | 20 | Surf Green | 15.7 | 9.1 | 16.2 | 16.1 |
Commercial roof coatings | |||||||||
Koolseal elastomeric | 81 | 14 | 88 | 81 | Kool Seal Elastomeric over shingle | 71.4 | 16.7 | 80 | 69.1 |
MCI elastomeric | 80 | 12 | 87 | 81 | Aged Elastomeric on plywood | 72.7 | 17.4 | 78.5 | 73.1 |
Flex-tec Elastomeric on shingle | 65 | 14.1 | 69.4 | 66.3 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Turner, J.; Parisi, A.V. Ultraviolet Radiation Albedo and Reflectance in Review: The Influence to Ultraviolet Exposure in Occupational Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071507
Turner J, Parisi AV. Ultraviolet Radiation Albedo and Reflectance in Review: The Influence to Ultraviolet Exposure in Occupational Settings. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(7):1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071507
Chicago/Turabian StyleTurner, Joanna, and Alfio V. Parisi. 2018. "Ultraviolet Radiation Albedo and Reflectance in Review: The Influence to Ultraviolet Exposure in Occupational Settings" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 7: 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071507