Lead Exposure and Associated Risk Factors among New Migrant Children Arriving in Greece
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Laboratory Evaluation
2.4. Glossary
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Blood Lead Levels
3.3. Risk Factors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Immigrant (n = 161) | Refugees (n = 188) | Migrant a (n = 349) | Native Controls (n = 249) | Total (n = 598) | p-value # | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n, %) | ||||||
Gender | ||||||
Male/Female (%/%) | 104/57 (64.6/35.4) | 107/81 (56.9/43.1) | 211/138 (60.5/39.5) | 129/120 (51.8/48.2) | 340/258 (56.9/43.1) | 0.022 1 |
Age (years) | ||||||
mean±SD | 6.25 ± 3.69 | 7.81 ± 3.69 | 7.09 ± 3.77 | 6.78 ± 3.74 | 6.96 ± 3.76 | 0.324 2 |
Median (range) | 5 (1–14) | 8 (1–14) | 7 (1–14) | 5.5 (1–14) | 6 (1–14) | |
Age group (years) | ||||||
1–5 | 89 (55.3) | 58 (30.9) | 147 (42.1) | 129 (51.8) | 276 (46.2) | 0.012 1 |
6–14 | 72 (45.3) | 130 (69.1) | 202 (57.9) | 120 (48.2) | 322 (53.8) | |
Geographic area of origin | ||||||
Europe | 30 (18) | 0 (0) | 30 (8.6) | 249 (100) | 279 (46.7) | ≤0.0001 3 |
Asia | 113 (70.2) | 173 (92) | 286 (81.9) | 0 (0) | 286 (47.8) | |
Africa | 18 (11.2) | 15 (8) | 33 (9.5) | 0 (0) | 33 (5.5) | |
Social Security | ||||||
NOHSP b | 73 (45.3) | 0 (0) | 73 (20.9) | 249 (100) | 322 (53.8) | ≤0.0001 3 |
Refugee card | 0 (0) | 188 (100) | 188 (53.9) | 0 (0) | 188 (31.4) | |
M. E. Card c | 15 (9.3) | 0 (0) | 15 (4.3) | 0 (0) | 15 (2.5) | |
Uninsured | 73 (45.3) | 0 (0) | 73 (20.9) | 0 (0) | 73 (12.2) | |
BMI d, (in percentiles) | ||||||
<5th | 29 (18) | 26 (13.8) | 55 (15.8) | 25 (10) | 80 (13.4) | 0.001 3 |
5th–15th | 26 (16.1) | 38 (20.2) | 64 (18.3) | 25 (10) | 89 (14.9) | |
15th–85th | 82 (50.9) | 104 (55.3) | 186 (53.3) | 147 (59) | 333 (55.7) | |
85th–95th | 12 (7.5) | 9 (4.8) | 21 (6) | 31 (12.4) | 52 (8.7) | |
>95th | 12 (7.5) | 11 (5.9) | 23 (6.6) | 21 (8.4) | 44 (7.4) | |
Anemia e | ||||||
No | 144 (89.4) | 139 (73.9) | 283 (81.1) | 216 (86.7) | 499 (83.4) | 0.041 1 |
Yes | 17 (10.6) | 49 (26.1) | 66 (18.9) | 33 (13.3) | 99 (16.6) | |
Pb **,f (≥5 μg/dL) | ||||||
No | 109 (67.7) | 141 (75.0) | 250 (72.3) | 246 (98.8) | 496 (83.4) | ≤0.0001 1 |
Yes | 52 (32.3) | 47 (25.0) | 99 (27.7) | 3 (1.2) | 99 (16.6) | |
Iron deficiency *,g (≤12ng/dL) | ||||||
No | 127 (78.9) | 161 (85.6) | 288 (82.5) | 233 (93.6) | 521 (87.1) | ≤0.0001 1 |
Yes | 34 (21.1) | 27 (14.4) | 61 (17.5) | 16 (6.4) | 77 (12.9) |
Pb a,* | Total | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
<5 (μg/dL) n, (%) | ≥5 (μg/dL) n, (%) | |||
Age group, (years) | ||||
1–5 | 222 (44.8) | 54 (54.5) | 276 (46.4) | 0.047 1 |
6–14 | 274 (55.2) | 45 (45.5) | 319 (53.6) | |
Gender | ||||
Male/Female | 279/217 (56.3/43.8) | 61/38 (61.6/38.4) | 340/255 (57.1/42.9) | 0.191 1 |
Migration status | ||||
Migrant | 250 (50.4) | 96 (97) | 346 (58.2) | ≤0.0001 1 |
Native | 246 (49.6) | 3 (3) | 249 (41.8) | |
Geographic area of origin | ||||
Europe | 274 (55.2) | 5 (5.1) | 279 (46.9) | ≤0.0001 1 |
Asia | 196 (39.5) | 90 (90.9) | 286 (48.1) | |
Africa | 26 (5.2) | 4 (4) | 30 (5) | |
Anemia ** | ||||
No | 423 (85.2) | 73 (73.7) | 496 (83.4) | 0.005 1 |
Yes | 73 (14.7) | 26 (26.3) | 99 (16.6) | |
Iron deficiency | ||||
No | 443 (89.3) | 76 (76.8) | 519 (87.2) | 0.001 1 |
Yes | 53 (10.7) | 23 (23.2) | 76 (12.8) | |
BMI b, (in percentiles) | ||||
<5th | 59 (11.9) | 21 (21.2) | 80 (13.4) | 0.003 2 |
5th–15th | 68 (13.7) | 20 (20.2) | 88 (14.8) | |
15th–85th | 288 (58.1) | 43 (43.4) | 331 (55.6) | |
85th–95th | 48 (9.7) | 4 (4) | 52 (8.7) | |
>95th | 33 (6.7) | 11 (11.1) | 44 (7.4) |
Elevated Blood Lead Levels * | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|
(≥5 μg/dL vs. <5 μg/dL) | |||
OR | 95% CI. | ||
Migration status (Reference category: Natives) | |||
Immigrants | 5.94 | (0.95,37.23) | 0.057 |
Refugees | 3.15 | (0.47,21.16) | |
Age Groups (years) (Reference category: 6–14) | |||
(1–5 years) | 1.8 | (1.10, 2.93) | 0.02 |
Geographic area of origin (Reference category: Africa) | |||
Europe | 0.37 | (0.06, 2.21) | 0.273 |
Asia | 3.63 | (1.20, 10.97) | 0.023 |
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Tanaka, M.; Petsios, K.; Dikalioti, S.K.; Poulopoulou, S.; Matziou, V.; Theocharis, S.; Pavlopoulou, I.D. Lead Exposure and Associated Risk Factors among New Migrant Children Arriving in Greece. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1057. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061057
Tanaka M, Petsios K, Dikalioti SK, Poulopoulou S, Matziou V, Theocharis S, Pavlopoulou ID. Lead Exposure and Associated Risk Factors among New Migrant Children Arriving in Greece. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(6):1057. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061057
Chicago/Turabian StyleTanaka, Marsela, Konstantinos Petsios, Stavroula K. Dikalioti, Stavroula Poulopoulou, Vassiliki Matziou, Stamatios Theocharis, and Ioanna D. Pavlopoulou. 2018. "Lead Exposure and Associated Risk Factors among New Migrant Children Arriving in Greece" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 6: 1057. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061057