The Health Consequences of Social Mobility in Contemporary China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data, Variables, and Methods
2.1. Data and Sample
2.2. Variables
2.3. Analytical Procedures
3. Results
3.1. Distribution of Health Status
3.2. Individual-Level Analysis
3.3. Provincial-Level Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Proportion (%) | Mean (SD) | |
---|---|---|---|
Dependent Variable | |||
Health | Very Unhealthy = 1 | 3.75 | |
Unhealthy = 2 | 17.05 | ||
So-so = 3 | 26.94 | ||
Healthy = 4 | 33.53 | ||
Very Healthy = 5 | 18.72 | ||
Independent Variable | |||
Mobility | Downward = 1 | 30.26 | |
Immobile = 2 | 44.79 | ||
Upward =3 | 24.95 | ||
Class | Lower = 1 | 20.37 | |
Lower Middle = 2 | 31.43 | ||
Middle = 3 | 41.46 | ||
Upper Middle = 4 | 5.85 | ||
Upper = 5 | 0.90 | ||
Party Member | No = 0 | 89.13 | |
Yes = 1 | 10.87 | ||
Hukou | Rural = 0 | 50.99 | |
Urban = 1 | 49.01 | ||
Gender | Female = 0 | 51.10 | |
Male = 1 | 48.90 | ||
Marital Status | Married =1 | 86.23 | |
Never Married = 2 | 5.74 | ||
Divorced/Widowed = 3 | 8.03 | ||
Work Status | Unemployed = 0 | 20.03 | |
Employed = 1 | 61.92 | ||
Retired = 2 | 18.05 | ||
Wave | Year 2005 | 12.31 | |
Year 2006 | 12.17 | ||
Year 2008 | 12.67 | ||
Year 2010 | 11.77 | ||
Year 2011 | 11.99 | ||
Year 2012 | 11.83 | ||
Year 2013 | 13.62 | ||
Year 2015 | 13.65 | ||
Age (years old) | 45.93 (14.93) | ||
Years of Schooling (years) | 8.40 (4.30) | ||
Family Annual Income (RMB) | 41,608.78 (104,372.20) |
Variable | Description | Mean | S.D. |
---|---|---|---|
Dependent Variable | |||
Health | Average Self-Rated Health | 1.26 | 0.30 |
Independent Variable | |||
Class Mobility | Average Self-Perceived Mobility | 0.72 | 1.71 |
Urbanization | Level of Urbanization | 0.42 | 0.16 |
Class | Average Self-Perceived Class | 1.47 | 0.35 |
Economic Development | GDP per capita (log value) | 0.17 | 0.59 |
Economic Growth | GDP Annual Growth Rate (Log value) | 0.13 | 0.06 |
Political Development | Percent of Party member | 0.11 | 0.05 |
Social Development | Number of NGO Association (log value) | 1.10 | 0.46 |
Inequality | Gini Coefficient (Household Income) | −0.78 | 0.18 |
Marketization | Marketization Index | 1.85 | 0.25 |
Labor Cost | Average Wage Level (Log value) | 10.30 | 0.80 |
Education | College Students per 100,000 People (Log value) | 2.16 | 0.32 |
Environment | PM10 | −2.31 | 0.26 |
Medical Care Development | Number of Hospital Beds (log value) | −5.61 | 0.28 |
Variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Self-Rated Health | |||
Immobile | 0.175 *** (0.019) | 0.073 *** (0.019) | 0.061 ** (0.019) |
Upward | 0.309 *** (0.020) | 0.126 *** (0.021) | 0.107 *** (0.021) |
Urban Residence | 0.123 *** (0.017) | ||
Self-Rated Class (ref: Middle Class) | |||
Lower | −0.755 *** (0.021) | −0.561 *** (0.021) | |
Lower Middle | −0.366 *** (0.017) | −0.284 *** (0.017) | |
Upper Middle | 0.163 *** (0.031) | 0.118 *** (0.032) | |
Upper | 0.235 ** (0.080) | 0.447 *** (0.081) | |
Age | −0.041 *** (0.001) | ||
Male | 0.295 *** (0.015) | ||
Party Member | 0.059 * (0.025) | ||
Marital Status (ref: Married) | |||
Never Married | 0.083 * (0.033) | ||
Separated/Divorced/Widowed | −0.043 (0.030) | ||
Work Status (ref: Employed) | |||
Unemployed | −0.307 *** (0.021) | ||
Retired | −0.099 *** (0.021) | ||
Years of Schooling | 0.018 *** (0.002) | ||
Logged Family Income | 0.139 *** (0.007) | ||
Cut Point 1 | −3.630 *** (0.048) | −4.025 *** (0.050) | −4.278 *** (0.093) |
Cut Point 2 | −1.645 *** (0.044) | −2.017 *** (0.046) | −2.146 *** (0.092) |
Cut Point 3 | −0.275 *** (0.044) | −0.622 *** (0.045) | −0.615 *** (0.091) |
Cut Point 4 | 1.417 *** (0.044) | 1.094 *** (0.046) | 1.275 *** (0.091) |
N | 65,829 | 65,829 | 65,829 |
Log-Likelihood | −91,928.407 | −91,118.680 | −86,318.460 |
Variables | Rural | Urban | Sig |
---|---|---|---|
Self-rated Health | |||
Immobile | 0.086 ** (0.030) | 0.014 (0.025) | * |
Upward | 0.127 *** (0.032) | 0.057 † (0.030) | † |
Self-Rated Class (ref: Middle Class) | |||
Lower | −0.513 *** (0.033) | −0.630 *** (0.029) | |
Lower Middle | −0.272 *** (0.028) | −0.304 *** (0.022) | |
Upper Middle | 0.192 *** (0.055) | 0.067 † (0.038) | * |
Upper | 0.697 *** (0.124) | 0.089 (0.109) | *** |
Age | −0.039 *** (0.001) | −0.042 *** (0.001) | |
male | 0.345 *** (0.024) | 0.214 *** (0.020) | *** |
Party Member | 0.142 ** (0.048) | 0.071 * (0.028) | |
Marital Status (ref: Married) | |||
Never Married | 0.080 (0.053) | 0.057 (0.042) | † |
Separated/Divorced/Widowed | −0.080 (0.052) | 0.013 (0.036) | |
Work Status (ref: Employed) | |||
Unemployed | −0.394 *** (0.037) | −0.316 *** (0.026) | * |
Retired | −0.161 *** (0.041) | −0.158 *** (0.028) | |
Years of Schooling | 0.030 *** (0.004) | 0.004 (0.003) | *** |
Logged Familial Income | 0.168 *** (0.011) | 0.090 *** (0.010) | *** |
Cut Point 1 | −3.003 *** (0.177) | −5.572 *** (0.129) | |
Cut Point 2 | −0.927 *** (0.175) | −3.299 *** (0.126) | |
Cut Point 3 | 0.516 ** (0.175) | −1.634 *** (0.125) | |
Cut Point 4 | 2.341 *** (0.176) | 0.334 ** (0.124) | |
N | 26,221 | 39,608 | |
Log-Likelihood | −35,257.311 | −50,122.127 |
Health | Immobile vs. Downward | Upward vs. Downward | Upward vs. Immobile |
---|---|---|---|
All | |||
Very Unhealthy | −0.002 ** (0.001) | −0.004 *** (0.001) | −0.002 * (0.001) |
Unhealthy | −0.006 ** (0.002) | −0.011 *** (0.002) | −0.005 * (0.002) |
So-so | −0.004 ** (0.001) | −0.006 *** (0.001) | −0.003 * (0.001) |
Healthy | 0.004 ** (0.001) | 0.007 *** (0.001) | 0.003 * (0.001) |
Very Healthy | 0.008 ** (0.002) | 0.014 *** (0.003) | 0.006 * (0.003) |
Rural | |||
Very Unhealthy | −0.004 ** (0.001) | −0.006 *** (0.001) | −0.002 (0.001) |
Unhealthy | −0.010 ** (0.003) | −0.014 *** (0.004) | −0.004 (0.003) |
So-so | −0.004 ** (0.002) | −0.009 *** (0.002) | −0.002 (0.002) |
Healthy | 0.007 ** (0.003) | 0.010 *** (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) |
Very Healthy | 0.011 ** (0.003) | 0.016 *** (0.004) | 0.005 (0.004) |
Urban | |||
Very Unhealthy | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 † (0.001) | −0.001 (0.001) |
Unhealthy | −0.001 (0.002) | −0.005 † (0.003) | −0.004 (0.002) |
So-so | −0.001 (0.002) | −0.004 † (0.002) | −0.003 (0.002) |
Healthy | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.003 † (0.002) | 0.002 (0.001) |
Very Healthy | 0.002 (0.003) | 0.008 † (0.004) | 0.006 (0.004) |
Variables | OLS | RE | FE |
---|---|---|---|
Average Self-perceived Mobility | 0.167 *** (0.023) | 0.167 *** (0.023) | 0.156 *** (0.022) |
Urbanization | −0.030 (0.075) | −0.030 (0.075) | −0.078 (0.071) |
Average Subjective Social Class | 0.364 *** (0.060) | 0.364 *** (0.060) | 0.218 *** (0.061) |
Political Party Structure | −0.327 * (0.162) | −0.327 * (0.162) | −0.503 ** (0.164) |
GDP per capita (log value) | −0.064 * (0.029) | −0.064 * (0.029) | 0.053 (0.085) |
GDP Annual Growth Rate (log value) | 0.035 (0.164) | 0.035 (0.164) | −0.256 (0.176) |
Gini Index | −0.002 (0.030) | −0.002 (0.030) | 0.001 (0.030) |
Marketization | 0.075 † (0.044) | 0.075 † (0.044) | 0.015 (0.081) |
Average Wage Level (log value) | −0.026 (0.021) | −0.026 (0.021) | 0.032 (0.021) |
Number of College Students (log value) | 0.313 *** (0.057) | 0.313 *** (0.057) | 0.337 *** (0.061) |
PM10 | 0.023 (0.022) | 0.023 (0.022) | 0.020 (0.038) |
Number of Hospital Bed (log value) | −0.033 (0.042) | −0.033 (0.042) | −0.092 (0.071) |
NGO Association (log value) | 0.028 (0.022) | 0.028 (0.022) | 0.017 (0.041) |
Constant | −0.300 (0.241) | −0.300 (0.241) | −0.783 † (0.402) |
N | 200 | 200 | 200 |
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Yan, F.; He, G.; Chen, Y. The Health Consequences of Social Mobility in Contemporary China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122644
Yan F, He G, Chen Y. The Health Consequences of Social Mobility in Contemporary China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(12):2644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122644
Chicago/Turabian StyleYan, Fei, Guangye He, and Yunsong Chen. 2018. "The Health Consequences of Social Mobility in Contemporary China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 12: 2644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122644