Effect of Caregiver’s Mental Health on Early Childhood Development across Different Rural Communities in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Sampling Selection
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. Data Description
2.2.2. Assessing Early Childhood Development
2.2.3. Assessing Caregiver’s Mental Health
2.2.4. Interactive Parenting Practices
2.2.5. Child and Household Characteristics
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Child and Household Characteristics
3.2. Comparing Early Childhood Developmental Outcomes, Prevalence of Caregiver Mental Health Problems, and Parenting Practices across Subpopulations
3.3. Correlations between Caregiver Mental Health and Early Childhood Developmental Outcomes
3.4. Correlates between Caregiver’s Mental Health and Parenting Practices
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dataset | Location of Study | Date | Community Type | Ages of Children | Number of Observations |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Province A | 2015–2016 | Western China Rural Communities | 6–24 months | 1712 |
2 | Provinces B and C | 2015 | Western China Rural Communities | 6–18 months | 349 |
3 | Provinces A and D | 2017 | Resettlement Migration Communities | 6–30 months | 129 |
4 | Provinces A and D | 2017 | Central China Rural Communities | 6–30 months | 124 |
5 | City 1 (in Province A); City 2 (in Province D); Metropolis E | 2017 | Migrant Communities | 6–30 months | 200 |
Variables | Full Sample | Western China Rural Communities | Resettlement Communities | Central China Rural Communities | Migrant Communities | Difference: (2)−(3) | Difference: (2)–(4) | Difference: (2)–(5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | p-value | p-value | p-value | |
(SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | ||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
Child characteristics | ||||||||
Age | 16.04 | 14.57 | 16.50 | 17.42 | 15.90 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(in months) | (6.53) | (5.09) | (6.85) | (7.32) | (6.64) | |||
Male | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.55 | 0.57 | 0.47 | 0.37 | 0.17 | 0.35 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | |||
Premature | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.38 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.24) | (0.21) | (0.17) | (0.25) | (0.29) | |||
Household characteristics | ||||||||
Primary caregiver | 0.68 | 0.74 | 0.58 | 0.60 | 0.73 | <0.01 | <0.01 | 0.93 |
(1 = mother) | (0.47) | (0.44) | (0.50) | (0.49) | (0.44) | |||
Maternal age | 0.69 | 0.65 | 0.71 | 0.69 | 0.74 | 0.23 | 0.36 | <0.01 |
(1 = above 25 years) | (0.46) | (0.48) | (0.46) | (0.46) | (0.44) | |||
Maternal education level | 0.34 | 0.22 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.61 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(1 = 9 years or higher) | (0.47) | (0.41) | (0.48) | (0.47) | (0.49) | |||
Father education level | 0.34 | 0.25 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 0.54 | <0.01 | 0.09 | <0.01 |
(1 = 9 years or higher) | (0.47) | (0.44) | (0.49) | (0.47) | (0.50) | |||
Mother stays at home | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.74 | 0.76 | 0.92 | 0.09 | 0.28 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.40) | (0.40) | (0.44) | (0.43) | (0.27) | |||
Father stays at home | 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.70 | <0.01 | 0.10 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.46) | (0.49) | (0.46) | |||
Family asset index | 0.32 | −0.15 | 0.27 | 0.37 | 1.14 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(1.19) | (1.20) | (1.22) | (1.08) | (0.88) | ||||
Household receives socialsecurity support (1 = yes) | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.79 | 0.66 | 0.43 |
(0.31) | (0.31) | (0.30) | (0.33) | (0.29) | ||||
Observations | 2514 | 2061 | 129 | 124 | 200 |
Variables | Full Sample | Western China Rural Communities | Resettlement Communities | Central China Rural Communities | Migrant Communities | Difference: (2)–(3) | Difference: (2)–(4) | Difference: (2)–(5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | |
(SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | ||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
Child development outcomes | ||||||||
Cognitive delay | 0.48 | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0.47 | 0.42 | 0.55 | 0.17 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.49) | |||
Language delay | 0.52 | 0.61 | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0.40 | 0.10 | 0.02 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.49) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.49) | |||
Social-emotional delay | 0.53 | 0.58 | 0.65 | 0.53 | 0.39 | 0.12 | 0.27 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.49) | (0.48) | (0.50) | (0.49) | |||
Motor delay | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.30 | 0.18 | 0.57 | 0.18 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.46) | (0.48) | (0.47) | (0.46) | (0.39) | |||
Caregiver’s mental health | ||||||||
Depression | 0.25 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.48 | 0.17 | 0.90 |
(1 = yes) | (0.43) | (0.42) | (0.44) | (0.45) | (0.42) | |||
Anxiety | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.31 | 0.05 |
(1 = yes) | (0.45) | (0.45) | (0.47) | (0.47) | (0.41) | |||
Stress | 0.16 | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.86 | 0.07 |
(1 = yes) | (0.37) | (0.35) | (0.41) | (0.36) | (0.40) | |||
Depression/Anxiety/Stress | 0.39 | 0.37 | 0.43 | 0.43 | 0.38 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.81 |
(1 = yes) | (0.49) | (0.48) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.49) | |||
Observations | 2514 | 2061 | 129 | 124 | 200 |
Variables | Full Sample | Western China Rural Communities | Resettlement Communities | Central China Rural Communities | Migrant Communities | Difference: (2)–(3) | Difference: (2)–(4) | Difference: (2)–(5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | |
(SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | (SD) | ||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
Positive Parenting Practices | ||||||||
Told story yesterday | 0.17 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.28 | 0.05 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.37) | (0.29) | (0.36) | (0.39) | (0.45) | |||
Read book yesterday | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.02 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.27) | (0.18) | (0.23) | (0.26) | (0.40) | |||
Sang song yesterday | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.35 | 0.52 | 0.77 | 0.05 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.48) | (0.45) | (0.45) | (0.48) | (0.50) | |||
Played game yesterday | 0.61 | 0.52 | 0.56 | 0.66 | 0.69 | 0.37 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.49) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.48) | (0.46) | |||
Over two child books in household | 0.38 | 0.26 | 0.33 | 0.41 | 0.55 | 0.08 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.49) | (0.44) | (0.47) | (0.49) | (0.50) | |||
Times expressed affection to baby | 13.02 | 8.35 | 15.50 | 15.02 | 17.82 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
(times) | (15.25) | (7.65) | (21.58) | (17.32) | (18.63) | |||
Negative Parenting Practices | ||||||||
Sometimes raise voice or yell at baby | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.53 | 0.56 | 0.49 | 0.70 | 0.23 | 0.70 |
(1 = yes) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | |||
Sometimes spank the baby | 0.42 | 0.36 | 0.43 | 0.51 | 0.33 | 0.10 | <0.01 | 0.29 |
(1 = yes) | (0.49) | (0.48) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.47) | |||
Sometimes take away toys from baby(1 = yes) | 0.34 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 0.53 | 0.01 | 0.40 |
(0.47) | (0.45) | (0.47) | (0.49) | (0.47) | ||||
Sometimes do not explain why baby’s behavior is not appropriate to him/her (1 = yes) | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.36 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.54 | 0.71 | 0.15 |
(0.47) | (0.47) | (0.48) | (0.48) | (0.45) | ||||
Observations | 2514 | 2061 | 129 | 124 | 200 |
Variables | Cognitive Scores | Language Scores | Social-Emotional Scores | Motor Scores | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | ||
(1) | Depression Scores | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.02 *** | −0.00 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.01) | ||
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared) | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.21 | 0.19 | |
(2) | Anxiety Scores | −0.01 * | −0.02 *** | −0.02 *** | −0.01 |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared) | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.21 | 0.19 | |
(3) | Stress Scores | −0.00 | −0.01 ** | −0.01 | −0.00 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared) | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.19 |
Variables | Cognitive Scores | Language Scores | Social-Emotional Scores | Motor Scores | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | ||
(1) | Moderate-Depression | 0.10 | −0.06 | −0.16 ** | 0.00 |
(1 = yes) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.07) | (0.10) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.19 | |
(2) | Moderate-Anxiety | 0.00 | −0.12 * | −0.20 ** | 0.01 |
(1 = yes) | (0.05) | (0.07) | (0.08) | (0.10) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.19 | |
(3) | Moderate-Stress | 0.05 | −0.05 | 0.03 | 0.02 |
(1 = yes) | (0.13) | (0.08) | (0.08) | (0.09) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.19 |
Variables | Told Story Yesterday (1 = Yes) | Read Book Yesterday (1 = Yes) | Sang Song Yesterday (1 = Yes) | Played Game Yesterday (1 = Yes) | Over Two Child Books in Household (1 = Yes) | Times Expressed Affection to Baby (Times) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
(1) | Moderate Depression | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.07 * | −0.08 *** | −1.48 |
(1 = yes) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.04) | (0.03) | (1.12) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.27 | |
(2) | Moderate Anxiety | −0.00 | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.93 |
(1 = yes) | (0.03) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.04) | (0.06) | (1.51) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.27 | |
(3) | Moderate Stress | −0.14 *** | −0.05 ** | −0.21 *** | −0.12 | −0.03 | −2.10 * |
(1 = yes) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.08) | (0.08) | (0.09) | (1.13) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.27 |
Variables | Sometimes Raise Voice or Yell at Baby (1 = Yes) | Sometimes Spank the Baby (1 = Yes) | Sometimes Take Away Toys from Baby (1 = Yes) | Sometimes Do Not Explain Why Baby’s Behavior Is Not Appropriate to Him/Her (1 = Yes) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | ||
(1) | Moderate Depression | 0.08 | 0.11 * | 0.07 ** | 0.07 * |
(1 = yes) | (0.08) | (0.06) | (0.03) | (0.04) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.15 | |
(2) | Moderate Anxiety | 0.06 * | 0.10 *** | 0.07 * | 0.02 |
(1 = yes) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.04) | (0.03) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.15 | |
(3) | Moderate Stress | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.04 |
(1 = yes) | (0.10) | (0.08) | (0.07) | (0.05) | |
Controls | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Tester Fixed Effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.15 |
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Share and Cite
Zhang, S.; Dang, R.; Yang, N.; Bai, Y.; Wang, L.; Abbey, C.; Rozelle, S. Effect of Caregiver’s Mental Health on Early Childhood Development across Different Rural Communities in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112341
Zhang S, Dang R, Yang N, Bai Y, Wang L, Abbey C, Rozelle S. Effect of Caregiver’s Mental Health on Early Childhood Development across Different Rural Communities in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(11):2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112341
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Siqi, Ruirui Dang, Ning Yang, Yu Bai, Lei Wang, Cody Abbey, and Scott Rozelle. 2018. "Effect of Caregiver’s Mental Health on Early Childhood Development across Different Rural Communities in China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 11: 2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112341