Association of Urogenital Symptoms with History of Water Contact in Young Women in Areas Endemic for S. haematobium. A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Recruiting Participants
2.3. Questionnaire
2.4. Water Contact Score
2.5. Sample Collection and Laboratory Analyses
2.6. Ethical Considerations
2.7. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Water Contact and Urinary Schistosomiasis
3.3. Unsafe Water Contact and Self-Reported Urogenital Symptoms
3.4. Current Unsafe Water Contact and Urogenital Symptoms
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Activity | Time Range (h) | Median Body Surface (%) | Activity Risk Coefficient |
---|---|---|---|
Playing | 1–3 | 100 | 5 |
Bathing | 1–3 | 100 | 5 |
Washing blankets | 3–5 | 35 | 4 |
Laundry | 1–3 | 35 | 3 |
Fishing | 1–3 | 35 | 3 |
Collecting water | ≤1 | 20 | 1 |
Crossing | ≤1 | 25 | 1 |
Age | Number of Pupils (%) |
---|---|
16–17 | 214 (24.2) |
18–19 | 397 (44.9) |
20–22 | 272 (30.8) |
Total | 883 |
Symptom | Adjusted OR | 95% CI | p Value a |
---|---|---|---|
Red urine | |||
Water contact score b | 1.16 | 1.09–1.24 | <0.001 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.65 | 1.07–2.55 | 0.023 |
Stress incontinence | |||
Water contact score b | 1.11 | 1.04–1.18 | 0.001 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.70 | 1.10–2.63 | 0.016 |
Burning sensation in the genitals | |||
Water contact score b | 1.09 | 1.03–1.15 | 0.005 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.83 | 1.19–2.81 | 0.006 |
Spot bleeding d | |||
Water contact score b | 1.10 | 1.02–1.18 | 0.012 |
Abnormal discharge smell | |||
Water contact score b | 1.07 | 1.01–1.14 | 0.018 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.49 | 0.97–2.29 | 0.070 |
Bloody discharge d | |||
Water contact score b | 1.11 | 1.02–1.21 | 0.020 |
Lower abdominal pain e | |||
Water contact score b | 1.07 | 1.00–1.14 | 0.028 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.46 | 0.91–2.35 | 0.119 |
Genital ulcer | |||
Water contact score b | 1.08 | 1.00–1.16 | 0.038 |
Neisseria gonorrhea c | 1.63 | 1.01–2.64 | 0.045 |
Symptom | Adjusted OR | 95% CI | p Value a |
---|---|---|---|
Red urine | |||
Water contact score b | 1.19 | 1.07–1.32 | 0.001 |
Neisseria gonorrhoea c | 1.46 | 0.75–2.83 | 0.266 |
Pain on urination | |||
Water contact score b | 1.15 | 1.04–1.27 | 0.006 |
Neisseria gonorrhoea c | 1.93 | 0.93–4.01 | 0.078 |
Burning sensation in the genitals | |||
Water contact score b | 1.17 | 1.06–1.30 | 0.002 |
Neisseria gonorrhoea c | 1.99 | 1.02–3.88 | 0.043 |
Stress incontinence | |||
Water contact score b | 1.17 | 1.05–1.30 | 0.004 |
Neisseria gonorrhoea c | 1.58 | 0.82–3.07 | 0.175 |
Spot bleeding d | |||
Water contact score b | 1.18 | 1.05–1.33 | 0.005 |
Post coital bleeding d | |||
Water contact score b | 1.18 | 1.04–1.34 | 0.012 |
Abnormal discharge smell | |||
Water contact score b | 1.11 | 1.01–1.22 | 0.027 |
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Galappaththi-Arachchige, H.N.; Amlie Hegertun, I.E.; Holmen, S.; Qvigstad, E.; Kleppa, E.; Sebitloane, M.; Ndhlovu, P.D.; Vennervald, B.J.; Gundersen, S.G.; Taylor, M.; et al. Association of Urogenital Symptoms with History of Water Contact in Young Women in Areas Endemic for S. haematobium. A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 1135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111135
Galappaththi-Arachchige HN, Amlie Hegertun IE, Holmen S, Qvigstad E, Kleppa E, Sebitloane M, Ndhlovu PD, Vennervald BJ, Gundersen SG, Taylor M, et al. Association of Urogenital Symptoms with History of Water Contact in Young Women in Areas Endemic for S. haematobium. A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016; 13(11):1135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111135
Chicago/Turabian StyleGalappaththi-Arachchige, Hashini Nilushika, Ingrid Elise Amlie Hegertun, Sigve Holmen, Erik Qvigstad, Elisabeth Kleppa, Motshedisi Sebitloane, Patricia Doris Ndhlovu, Birgitte Jyding Vennervald, Svein Gunnar Gundersen, Myra Taylor, and et al. 2016. "Association of Urogenital Symptoms with History of Water Contact in Young Women in Areas Endemic for S. haematobium. A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 11: 1135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111135