Drinking Water from Dug Wells in Rural Ghana — Salmonella Contamination, Environmental Factors, and Genotypes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Contamination with Gram-Negative Rod-Shaped Bacteria
3.2. Salmonella Isolates and Serovars
3.3. Clusters of Salmonella Isolates
3.4. Antibiotic Susceptibility
Frequency (%) | ||
---|---|---|
Drug (AC μg) | Susceptible | Resistant |
Ampicillin (10) | 24 (92.3) | 2 (7.7) |
Ampicillin/Sulbactam (20) | 25 (96.2) | 1 (3.8) |
Ceftriaxone (30) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0) |
Chloramphenicol (30) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0) |
Ciprofloxacin (5) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0) |
Cotrimoxazole (25) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0) |
Nalidixic acid (30) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0) |
Tetracycline (30) | 25 (96.2) | 1 (3.8) |
3.5. PFGE Genotyping
3.6. Well Characteristics and Salmonella Contamination
Independent Variables | Frequency (%) | Random-Effect Models OR (95% CI) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model A | Model B | Model C | Model D | Model E | ||
Presence of frame (>30 cm) | 294 (74.1) | 0.3 (0.1–1.3) | – | – | – | 0.3 (0.1–0.8) |
Well covered | 269 (67.8) | – | 2.0 (0.3–13.6) | – | – | – |
Rubbish in well | 75 (18.9) | – | – | 2.6 (0.9–7.4) | – | 2.9 (0.9–9.6) |
Season (rainy versus dry) | 272 (68.5) | – | – | – | 2.6 (1.2–5.6) | 2.6 (1.2–5.5) |
Random Intercept Variance (SE) | – | 0.89 (0.82) | 2.96 (3.21) | 0.96 (0.49) | 1.68 (0.97) | 0.76 (1.28) |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Share and Cite
Dekker, D.M.; Krumkamp, R.; Sarpong, N.; Frickmann, H.; Boahen, K.G.; Frimpong, M.; Asare, R.; Larbi, R.; Hagen, R.M.; Poppert, S.; Rabsch, W.; Marks, F.; Adu-Sarkodie, Y.; May, J. Drinking Water from Dug Wells in Rural Ghana — Salmonella Contamination, Environmental Factors, and Genotypes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 3535-3546. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403535
Dekker DM, Krumkamp R, Sarpong N, Frickmann H, Boahen KG, Frimpong M, Asare R, Larbi R, Hagen RM, Poppert S, Rabsch W, Marks F, Adu-Sarkodie Y, May J. Drinking Water from Dug Wells in Rural Ghana — Salmonella Contamination, Environmental Factors, and Genotypes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(4):3535-3546. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403535
Chicago/Turabian StyleDekker, Denise Myriam, Ralf Krumkamp, Nimako Sarpong, Hagen Frickmann, Kennedy Gyau Boahen, Michael Frimpong, Renate Asare, Richard Larbi, Ralf Matthias Hagen, Sven Poppert, Wolfgang Rabsch, Florian Marks, Yaw Adu-Sarkodie, and Jürgen May. 2015. "Drinking Water from Dug Wells in Rural Ghana — Salmonella Contamination, Environmental Factors, and Genotypes" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 4: 3535-3546. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403535