Next Article in Journal
Efficacy of Ceragenins in Controlling the Growth of Oral Microorganisms: Implications for Oral Hygiene Management
Next Article in Special Issue
Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol in Commercial Suk-Saiyasna Herbal Remedy: Applying Hansen Solubility Parameters for Sample Extraction to Ensure Regulatory Compliance
Previous Article in Journal
Identification of Factors Associated with Mortality in the Elderly Population with SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Results from a Longitudinal Observational Study from Romania
Previous Article in Special Issue
A Comprehensive Immunocapture-LC-MS/MS Bioanalytical Approach in Support of a Biotherapeutic Ocular PK Study
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Pharmaceuticals
Volume 17
Issue 2
10.3390/ph17020203
pharmaceuticals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Multi-Residue Analytical Method for Assessing the Effects of Stacking Treatment on Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Degradation in Broiler Litter

by
Solomon Efriem
1,2,
Malka Britzi
2,
Stefan Soback
2,
Chris Sabastian
1 and
Sameer J. Mabjeesh
1,*
1
The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
2
National Residue Control Laboratory, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Beit Dagan 5025001, Israel
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pharmaceuticals 2024, 17(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17020203
Submission received: 19 November 2023 / Revised: 28 January 2024 / Accepted: 31 January 2024 / Published: 4 February 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in Drug Analysis)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Antimicrobial drugs and coccidiostat compounds are commonly used in poultry farming. These compounds are subsequently excreted and released into the environment via broiler litter (BL) and can re-enter the food chain as fertilizer or animal feed. Such residue in animal feed can encourage the appearance of antibiotic-resistant bacteria as well as toxicity. Most analytical methods used to identify and quantitate these drug residues are traditional, and are specific to some antimicrobials and present limitations in assessing complex matrixes like BL. The aim of this study was to develop a multi-residue analytic method for assessing 30 antimicrobial drugs and coccidiostats associated with BL. We investigated the presence and the effects of biotic stack treatment on the degradation of drug residue in BL. Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE) were replaced by Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) clean-up steps and detected by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). Results show that a wide spectrum of residues were detected from 0.4 to 8.9 mg kg−1. Following lab-scale stacking treatment, tilmicosin and eight coccidiostats persisted in BL (26–100%). This research supports the need for better understanding, regulation, and management of the use of BL that might carry a high risk of residue drugs.

1. Introduction

Global poultry meat consumption has been growing rapidly during the last two decades for various reasons, including the desire for healthier foods and calls for inexpensive sources of protein. Accordingly, a total of 280 million broilers were produced in Israel during 2021 via the implementation of intensive production methods involving reduced energy consumption and a 40-day-growth period [1]. During the broiler growth cycle, 0.3–0.85 kg of litter is produced per animal. In 2021, 336,000 tons of broiler litter (BL) were produced and used for agricultural soil fertilization, soil amendments and, in the form of dried broiler litter (DBL), as ruminant feed [2,3,4]. Broiler litter contains more crude protein and less ash, as compared to layer hen or turkey litter.
Of the coccidiostats and antimicrobials utilized in poultry farming, 70–80% are excreted and released into the environment [5,6]. Coccidiostats (ionophores, nicarbazine, and clopidol) are compounds used in poultry farming for prophylactic or growth promotion purposes. In addition to coccidiostats, groups of therapeutic antimicrobial agents are also used for treatment and prevention of infection. According to the FDA, despite a decreasing trend, 6.1 million kg of antimicrobials and 4.2 million kg of ionophores were sold to US animal producers in 2019, of which 3% of the antimicrobials and 25% of the ionophores were intended for use with poultry [7]. Thus, feeding animals with DBL involves the risk of spreading bacteria, antimicrobial resistance, and toxins, as well as drug residues that can cause potential public health hazards, in addition to morbidity, and even mortality in animals [8,9,10].
The most widely used antimicrobial and decomposition treatments of BL used as animal feed are aerobic (i.e., forced aeration), anaerobic (i.e., ensiling), and stacking. Stacking treatment is a semi-aerobic treatment involving passive pile windrows and in which turning is not required for aeration, as in compost. Efficiency of decomposition depends on litter composition, the litter environment, physical properties of the litter, and the quality of the bedding and feed composition. Environmental conditions include moisture, aeration, pore space, and flow of water for microbial activity, while physical factors include location (i.e., surface placement), insulated treatment space, litter volume and freshness, windrow height and width, and particle size. Litter hydrophobicity and the carbon/nitrogen ratio (20–30:1) also affects the ability to decompose litter quickly and completely. Specifically, a low carbon/nitrogen ratio reduces microbial activity and causes reduced decomposition, whereas high ratios also slow the decomposition process. The persistence and degradation of certain antimicrobials and ionophores in BL have been studied in terms of composting, aerobic digestion, and the impact of soil and aquatic environments [11,12,13,14,15,16]. However, the effect of stacking BL treatment on the degradation of pharmaceutical compounds is still largely unknown [17,18,19].
Recycling BL in Israel and worldwide started in 1940. Dry BL is used as animal feed due to economic and environmental considerations. Broiler litter is also used as emergency feeding when not enough sources of ruminant feed exist. The three major dried BL producers/suppliers in Israel are focused on compost in the north-west (stacking treatment), south industries (aerobic treatment), and north-east antimicrobial independent farms (aerobic treatment). Jointly, they supply 70,000–100,000 tons of dried BL. The remaining 19% of BL used as animal feed undergoes ensiling treatment by farmers or is utilized without any treatment. Pasture-based cattle are the most BL using agents, with 48% used for agriculture following either composting treatment or as is.
The challenge in determining antimicrobial and coccidiostat residues in BL is related to their physicochemical properties, as well as components of the BL matrix that include moisture, organic, and inorganic matter. Multiple antimicrobials and coccidiostats have been identified by LC/MS/MS in matrices other than BL [20,21]. However, traditional analytical methods for characterizing BL remain limited. Cleaning procedures based on solid phase extraction columns are specific to some antimicrobials, with sample preparation time being long and high amounts of solvents used. At the same time, fast multi-analyte detection methods using QuEChERS have been developed for use with food, vegetables, fruits, urine [22,23,24,25], and swine manure (not including polar antimicrobials and coccidiostat drugs [26].
Liquid-liquid extraction used in previous studies has been shown to be an effective method of separating compounds in two immiscible liquids (aqueous and organic solvents). The problems with this method include the emulsion process in which the adsorption of analytes to other matrix molecules, e.g., protein, occurs. Additionally, the natural solubility of the two phases causes emulsion in the extraction phase of residue analytical methods. To overcome this emulsion, the addition of salts, heating or cooling, filtration, other organic solvents, and centrifugation were used. Yet, these methods were not always effective and extraction times were lengthy [27,28,29,30,31,32,33]. In a previous study, errors during chromatographic analysis were broken down to 30% from the sample processing, 19% by the analyzer (operator), and 11% by the choice of column used [34]. In traditional methods, increased sample preparation time reduces the recovery rate and leads to a loss of analytes and high Relative Standard Deviations in repeatability and reproducibility. According to Majors’ data from 2013 [34], 61% of time spent on typical chromatographic analysis was for sample preparation.
In the present study, we report the first multi-residue analysis method for containing five different antimicrobial classes, and both ionophores and synthetic coccidiostats (together comprising 30 pharmaceutical compounds at the residue level). The method was used to investigate the presence, persistence, degradation, toxicity concentration of residues, and the relation between residue drugs and resistant bacteria in BL used as ruminant feed. The target sensitivity of the method was set to closely correlate with the existing maximum residue limits (MRL) for these compounds in poultry liver. This was considered essential for the purpose of evaluating the potential for building resistant bacterial populations in the litter and the environmental spread thereof. Our multi-residue analytical method as shown in this study is characterized by low interference, good recovery, and selectivity for antimicrobial and coccidiostat residues in BL, reduces sample preparation steps, and reduces the high analytical cost.
This research supports the need for better understanding, regulation, management, and proper use of animal waste so as to protect and reduce the numbers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the levels of drug residues that carry a high risk for animals, humans, and the environment. This study is of interest to agriculture, public health, environment pollution, analytical chemistry, and waste management researchers.

2. Results

2.1. Method Validation

2.1.1. Suitability (Repeatability)

The results for coccidiostats and tetracycline, sulfonamide, fluoroquinolone, macrolide, and beta-lactam groups of antimicrobials had a relative standard deviation (RSD) < 20%, except for oxytetracycline at high concentrations (Table 1). Medium level recoveries at 500 µg kg−1 were 80–120% and RSD < 20% (shown in the Table S2).

2.1.2. Inter-Day Recovery (Reproducibility)

The results for coccidiostats and sulfonamide, fluoroquinolone, macrolide, and beta-lactam groups of anti-microbials had an RSD <20%, except for norfloxacin and chlortetracycline (Table S3).

2.1.3. Specificity and Selectivity

Good signal-to-noise ratios, selectivity, specificity, and low interference at retention time (RT) except for decoquinat (S/N < 10, Table S6) were observed. The coefficient of variation (CV%) of blank sample areas for sulfachlorpyridazine and erythromycin were 20.7 and 21.8%, respectively (Table S6).
Representative chromatograms of antimicrobials in standard solution, blank matrix, and spiked matrix are presented in Figure 1. Chromatograms of beta-lactams and coccidiostats are presented in Figure S2, Figure S3 and Figure S4 respectively.
The peaks of a few transitions observed in blank matrix differ in retention time and do not co-elute with the relevant analytes. For all others, the area is lower than 30% of LOQ.

2.2. Identification and Quantification of BL Samples

Broiler litter samples were collected at four different locations. Altogether, 18 antimicrobials and coccidiostats were detected in 42 batches of samples during 2019–2021. Most samples were positive for one or more of the analyzed compounds. Members of the tetracycline, fluoroquinolone, and coccidiostat groups were detected more in the northwest and south of Israel, as compared to the northeast and other locations in the country (Figure 1). Macrolides and beta-lactams were not detected at all. Indeed, beta-lactam antimicrobials are not stable in the solution or in the environment.
In Figure 2, we show results for 18 antimicrobial and coccidiostat drugs detected in BL. The prevalence (and medium concentration; mg kg−1 (ppm)) of drug residues in BL were: narasin 47% (2.88), nicarbazine 59.5% (6.06), monensin 57% (6.97), robendine 14% (1.35), salinomycin 4.2% (0.17), decoquinate 7.1% (0.19), diclazuril 4.2% (1.92), maduramycin (0.28 mg/kg), sulfachloropyrazine 9.5% (0.46), sulfadimethoxine 4.2% (0.85), norfloxacin 19% (0.7), danofloxacin 4.7% (0.43), enrofloxacin (9.5% (0.68), ciprofloxacin (14.3% (0.22), oxytetracycline 21.4% (8.92), tetracycline 23.8% (0.152), doxycycline 4.2% (0.49), and chlortetracycline 33% (8.92).

2.3. Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Residue Degradation upon Stacking Treatment

Four representative antimicrobials (tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, sulfisoxazole, and amoxicillin) at high concentrations were degraded >95%, except for erythromycin (74%), by the stacking treatment (Figure 3). All five antimicrobial groups, namely, tetracycline, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, sulphonamides, and beta-lactams (i.e., tetracycline, doxycycline, oxyteteracycline, chlortertracycline, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin, norfloxacin, sulfisoxazole, sulfachloropyrazine, sulfachloropyridazine, sulfadiazine, sulfadimidine, sulfadoxine, sulfadimethoxine, tylosine, and erythromycin) at low residue concentrations were degraded >95%, except for tilmicosin (65%; Figure 3). Other than salinomycin, all eight coccidiostats persisted in BL (Figure 3). During treatment, the temperature and pH rose to 45–55 °C and 7–8.8, respectively.
Residue percentages (±SEM) after three weeks of treatment at different spiked concentrations of 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 ppm of dicoquinat, clopidol, maduramicin, narasin, monensin, diclazuril, nicarbazin, robenidien, tilmicosin, and erythromycin (Figure 3).
The experimental data showed that high rates of degradation were obtained after seven days of stacking treatment. Tilmicosin persisted more than macrolide groups (erythromycin and tylosin) at low spiked concentrations of 0.5–2 mg kg−1 (ppm). Residue percentages (±SEM) upon stacking treatment were 35% (±2.6) for tilmicosin. For clopidol, the value was 36.4% (±3.2). Tilmicosin and clopidol are drugs not often used on Israel broiler farms. The four coccidiostats used in Israel at low frequencies are decoquinat, diclaziuril, maduramycin, and robendien. The residue percentage of these coccidiostats were >100 (±9.9), 43.7 (±5.7), 73, and 32.7% (±3), respectively, after stacking treatment. For the most widely used coccidiostats, namely, narasin, monensin, and nicarbazine, degradation percentages upon stacking treatment were 54.9 (±5.4), 49 (±2.1), and 36.5% (±3), respectively.

3. Discussion

The development of simultaneous multi-class drug residue determination in liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) is a challenging task due to low concentration of compounds of interest in a complexed matrix such as BL, that causes a high background of undesired compounds. The real challenge is related to the variety of chemical properties of different classes of drugs that should be extracted simultaneously from such a complicated matrix. The extraction procedure has to be efficient enough to enable good sensitivity as well as selectivity, in order to allow precise identification and quantification of all analytes of interest at the target level of concentration.
Analytical methods previously published and used for detection and quantification of drug residues in animal manure are mostly for sulfonamides, tetracycline, and fluoroquinolones [35] in liquid manure and not in BL. The concentrations of specific antimicrobial residues were also calculated in dry and wet manure samples [35]. Previous studies showed the difficulty in comparing and understanding the real concentration of drug residues in dry and wet manure.
The wide range of physical, chemical, and biological properties of antimicrobials and coccidiostats, including 54.8–64% natural organic matter, minerals, metals, and moisture [36,37], create a highly challenging matrix for compound extraction. Antimicrobials and coccidiostats in BL present variable chemical properties, such as protonated ionophores at low pH, the ionized forms of the antimicrobials (pKa), affinity to divalent elements, such as Mg++ and Ca++, and solubility. We found that ethyl acetate with methanol is the most suitable extraction solvent for beta-lactams, sulfonamide, fluoroquinolone, tetracycline, macrolide antibiotics, and coccidiostats. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid solution was used to remove abiotic cations involved in and metallic reactions that can occur in BL. A combination of MgSO4 and a primary–secondary amine mixture in the QuEChER method was utilized to clean the extracted BL matrix. The MgSO4 reduces sorbent moisture content while the primary–secondary amine removes fatty acids and some lipids from the matrix.
In most other studies, acetonitrile was utilized as the extraction solvent and hydrophilic-lipophilic balanced (HLB) solid phase extraction cartridges [12,27,28,29,30].
Methods previously described for sample preparation of broiler litter required large amounts of solvents and buffers [27,28,30,33], most of the extraction and clean-up processes utilized HLB or C-18 SPE. The SPE methods include complicated and tedious steps [33], and spent more reagent and time [28,29,30,33]. Most previous methods were specific for one or few groups of antimicrobials or coccidiostats. Compared to those methods, the analytical multi-residue method we describe includes a broad spectrum of antimicrobial and coccidiostat groups, with simple sample preparation steps with reduced use of solvents, reagents, and time.
The matrix effect was evaluated by comparing peak areas in a standard solution with the spiked extracted matrix. Signal enhancement of or suppression of different magnitude was observed in the spiked extracted matrix compared to the standard solution for beta-lactams (96%–176%), macrolides (86%–210%), tetracyclines (62%–139%), sulfonamides (85%–107%), fluoroquinolones (72%–124%), and coccidiostats (64%–76%). However, this effect was compensated by utilizing matrix-matched calibration curves for all analytes.
The effect of composting treatment on the persistence of ionophores were also shown by Arikan [30], who found that abiotic reactions with ionophores caused a reduction in recovery, more interference, and a lower sensitivity for their detection.
The traditional in-house extraction and cleaning procedures adopted at the start of this study involved the use of an extraction buffer comprising acetone: DDW (1:4) and SPE-plexa. This resulted in low interference, good recovery, and selectivity for fluoroquinolone, tetracycline, and macrolide antimicrobials. However, this extraction method requires a large number of sample preparation steps, more solvents, and results in low recovery for other residue compounds such as beta-lactams, sulphonamides, and coccidiostats. Due to the low efficiency of pervious analytical methods, we developed a rapid multi-residue analytical method in BL to regulate the degradation and toxicity of residues in BL used as ruminant feed. Our analytical method has a lower limit of detection and a lower limit of quantification at ≤25 and ≤100 ppb, respectively. The target inter-day precision, the standard curve fit (r2) requirements and recoveries were <20%, ≥0.95, and 70–120% for most residue compounds in BL. This multi-residue analytical method is characterized by simple steps and a high purification effect for a large group of compounds. It also reduces the processing time, the use of organic solvents, and the use of reagents compare to previous BL analytical methods.
Antimicrobial and coccidiostat residue concentrations varied at different locations across Israel. This might indicate differences among broiler farms using different drugs. Residue concentrations of coccidiostat, enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline in BL were low in Israel, relative to some other countries [38,39,40]. The presence of tetracycline, or fluoroquinolone groups (important antimicrobials for humans), in BL contributes to the increased rate of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria in environmental contaminations that affect human health. The low detection of sulphonamides reported here indicate a shifting away from sulphonamides to coccidiostats in poultry farming. However, the influence of coccidiostats on the development of resistant bacteria is still unclear.
Coccidiostat concentrations of maduramycin, monensin, and narasin detected before any treatment in BL were considerably below toxic concentrations in cattle and sheep [24,41,42,43,44]. During stacking treatment, the highest degradation rate was observed in the first week. This might reflect the functional activity and thus self-heating of microorganisms before termination of the fermentation process. The more biodegradable drugs were naturally produced antimicrobials as compared to synthetic compounds (logkow > 2). Our stacking treatment results showed similarity to those from past composting treatment studies on degradation of some drug residues, like tetracycline, fluoroquinolone, and some coccidiostats [45,46]. After seven days of composting treatment of turkey litter, the chlortetracycline degradation ratio was low [16], as in this study. However, there were large differences in the degradation ratios of mononsin, tylosin, and sulfamethazine (54%, 76%, and 0%, respectively) in the turkey composting study, as compared to our studies of BL degradation using a stacking treatment. Degradation of sulfadiazine by Microbacterium lacus strain SDZm4 was investigated in previous studies of soil samples [47]. Microbacterium are Gram-positive bacteria also found in broiler gut. Therefore, this may be a reason why sulfonamide degradation in broiler litter was >95% more than in turkey litter. The low degradation of erythromycin after a high concentration spike may be due to the low activity of Pseudomonas bacteria in the litter. In a previous study, P. aerugiona was one of bacteria that biodegraded erythromycin drugs [48].
In laboratory-scale study, all antimicrobials in this study were degradable <LOQ, except for tilmicosin, as seen with composting treatment for some drugs in BL [16,49,50]. However, spiked samples of tilmicosin in BL during 40 days of composting treatment at 50–60% water content were <LOQ (11 µg kg−1) [47]. Sun et al. explained the biodegradation of ionophores was dependent on temperature and moisture [6]. In our results, a rise in temperature with oxygen supplying led to a higher degradation ratio than seen with anaerobic treatment systems. However, the piling and turning composting system in another study assessing the degradation of salinomycin and narasin showed the opposite trend [51]. The Sun et al. studies also addressed the similarities of degradation of narasin and a synthetic of narasin with a methyl group salinomycin degradation ratio [6]. However, salinomycin degradation in our study was >95% and that of narasin was 46–58% in the stacking treatment systems.
The treatment results with decoquinate at all three durations were unexpected. The decoquinate concentration increased with treatments. We investigate the effects of spiked concentration of a derivative of quinolone (decoquinate) and quinolones. However, the increased concentration of decoquinate were not derived from quinolones. A similar phenomenon were reported previously [52]. In that study, the stability of decoquinate and pre-mixtures (vitamin and minerals) stored at 25 °C and humidity of 60% over 6 months were 87%. However, after 18 months, the decoquinate concentration increased to 106% [52].
The purpose of the current study was to compare the effect of different treatments on degradation of antimicrobials and coccidiostats. Investigation of degradation product or metabolites (except for ciprofloxacin) were not included in this study. However, it would be interesting to consider this issue in a future plan.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Chemicals and Reagents

Erythromycin, tilmicosin, and oxytetracycline standards were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Merck (St. Louis, MO, USA). Tylosin, decoquinate, chlortetracycline, and nicarbazin were obtained from A2S Analytical Standards Solutions (Saint Jean d’Illac, France). Ciprofloxacin, danofloxacin, norfloxacin, sulfadiazine, sulfisoxazole, and ampicillin were obtained from Toronto Research Chemicals (Toronto, ON, Canada). Enrofloxacin was obtained from Glentham (Corsham, Wiltshire, UK). Sulfadimidine, sulfachloropyridazine, sulfaquinoxaline, doxycycline, amoxicillin, maduramicin, diclazuril, and clopidol were obtained from Dr. Ehrenstorfer (Augsburg, Germany), monensin from Acros (Geel, Belgium), and lasalocid from Santa Cruz (Huissen, The Netherlands). Semduramycin came from Phibro (Teaneck, NJ, USA) and narasin from United States Pharmacopeia (Rockville, MD, USA). Robendine, salinommycin, sulfachlo-ropyrazine, and robendin-d8 were from HPC Standards (Atlanta, GA, USA). All antimicrobial and coccidiostat standards were 97–98% pure, except for nicarbazine (90%) and clopidol (95%). HPLC-grade methanol, acetonitrile, and formic acid were purchased from J. T. Baker (Deventer, The Netherlands) and EDTA was from Sigma-Aldrich Merck (Rehovot, Isrel). Ammonium formate was obtained from Fisher Chemicals (Loughborough, UK). Analytical grade ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, and methanol were obtained from Bio-Lab (Jerusalem, Israel). UV/UF-ST de-ionized water (resistivity > 18 mΩ/cm) was produced with a Thermo Scientific apparatus (Long Branch, NJ, USA).
Stock solutions containing 1000 mg kg−1 of the antimicrobials and coccidiostats was prepared in methanol, except for the beta-lactam solution (1000 mg L−1 (ppm)), which was prepared in double distilled water (DDW). Sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, and coccidiostats were stored at 4 °C, the macrolide and tetracycline standards were stored at −20 °C and the beta-lactam standard solution was kept at −80 °C.

4.2. Sample Collection

Untreated BL samples were collected from treatment companies (aerobic and stacking process-based), with 590 poultry farms providing the litter to the companies after one cycle of production. Raw litter samples (100 g) were collected from broiler farms and treatment companies at nine locations utilizing a zigzag pattern. The samples were placed into a cold container and transferred to the laboratory within 12 h, where they were frozen at −20 °C pending analysis (European Commission (EC) Regulation No. 152/2009).

4.3. Pre-Treatment of Raw BL

For multi-residue analytical method development, the litter was pre-treated as follows in the laboratory. Samples were freeze-dried by lyophilization and ground thoroughly to homogeneity. The moisture content of the litter at the time of collection was 30–40%. For high accuracy in multi-residue analysis (MRA), the sampling process, drying of the samples and sample homogeneity are critical. In the current study, drying the BL samples in an oven at 70 °C for 72 h degraded the majority of anti-microbials and coccidiostats (Table S4). Therefore, lyophilization was considered the preferred process for drying.

4.4. Sample Extraction

For sulfonamide, beta-lactam, tetracycline, fluoroquinolone, macrolide, and coccidiostat analysis, 10 mL ethyl acetate/methanol (1:1) and 0.08 mL of a 10 mg kg−1 internal standard mixture of sulfisoxazole, roxithromycin (Toronto Research Chemicals, Toronto, ON, Canada), robenidine d8 (HPLC Standards, Am Wieseneck, Germany), levofloxacin (Sigma-Aldrich, Rehovot, Israel), and minocycline (A2S Analytical Standards Solutions) were added to 2 g of BL, fortified with 30 compounds (Table S1) form the tetracycline, fluoroquinolone, sulfonamide, beta-lactam, macrolide, and coccidiostat groups at a concentration of 10 ppm each and 0.2 mL 5% EDTA, vortexed and centrifuged at 3900 rcf (g) for 10 min. Ten mL of the supernatant were transferred to QuEChERS (900 mg MgSO4, 150 mg PSA, primary and secondary amines; Restek, Bellefonte, PA, USA), vortexed and centrifuged at 3900 rcf (g) for 10 min, centrifuged 5 min at 14,000 rcf (g), and transferred 0.2 mL into a 0.25 mL vial and analyzed by LC/MS/MS. Figure 4 presents a schematic depiction of the protocol.

4.5. LC/MS/MS Analysis

Antimicrobial and coccidiostat concentrations were measured using the API 4000 or 3200QTrap mass spectrometer system (Sciex, Vaughan, ON, Canada) connected to the Agilent 1200 (Agilent Technologies, Waldbronn, Germany) system (binary pump, degasser, temperature-regulated column compartment, and autosampler). Chromatographic separation of antimicrobials was achieved with a Zorbax, Eclipse Plus, C18, 4.6 mm × 50 mm, 1.8 μm (Agilent, Waldbronn, Germany) for the reversed phase column. The mobile phase consisted of 0.2% formic acid and acetonitrile. The acetonitrile gradient increased from 5% to 70% from 0 to 2 min, remained at 70% for 2 min, and then returned to the initial level at 3 min.
For coccidiostat samples, the isocratic mobile phase consisted of 10% 0.01 M ammonium formate, containing 0.1% formic acid as the aqueous solution, and 90% acetonitrile as the organic solvent, at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. The injection volume was 5 μL, with a post-run period of 5 min. LC/MS/MS parameters are specified in the supplementary file (Table S5). It has to be mentioned that with the 3200 instrument, samples were injected twice in positive and negative mode (not in polarity switch mode).
Adducts were observed during the optimization stage. For the majority of analytes, adducts were not chosen for monitoring, except for ionophores (lasalocid, maduramicin, monensin, narasin, and salinomycin). For these analytes, the precursor ion was the [M+NH4]+ adduct.
Robenidine-d8 was used as an internal standard as a measure for appropriate performance of the extraction procedure, as well as for LC-MS performance, regrading proper injection and signal stability.

4.6. Method Validation

The analytical method developed here was validated for recovery, accuracy, precision, suitability, specificity, and selectivity. LLOQ and LLOD were determined according to the guidelines published by the European Commission (808/2021/EC and GL49/2015) for animal products, except reproductivity and reproducibility that were 4 replications instead of 6. To the best of our knowledge, there are no published guidelines for validation with manure samples.

4.7. Calibration

Calibration curve and recovery: a matrix-matched calibration curve was prepared using fortified concentrations of 0, 100, 250, 500, 1000, and 1500 µg kg−1. Drug-free BL was spiked with a mix of antimicrobial and coccidiostat standards, extracted, cleaned, and analyzed by LC/MS/MS (Figure S1).
The expected concentration of each analyte in real samples, especially after litter treatment, was difficult to predict. Therefore, a decision was made to set the same concentration range for all analytes.

4.8. Recovery

Recovery of each antimicrobial and coccidiostat was calculated according to Equations (1) and (2).
Absolute recovery = PABL/PAAS × 100,
where PABL is the peak area of the spiked BL sample, and PAAS is the peak area of the clean analytical standard.
Relative recovery = SACON/CALCON × 100,
where SACON is the found sample concentration and CALCON is the added sample concentration. Linear regression analysis (y = mx + b, where m = slope, b = y intercept, y = analytical peak area) was applied. Here, x = analytical spiked concentration (ppb) was used to calculate sample values.

4.9. Suitability (Repeatability) and Inter-Day Recovery (Reproducibility)

Injection of four replicates of known concentrations (100–1500 ppb) of fortified BL samples was performed for repeatability. Injection of four replicates of known concentrations (100–1500 ppb) of fortified broiler litter samples on four different days were analysed using two different LC/MS/MS instruments for reproducibility.

4.10. Specificity and Selectivity

Twenty representative blank samples and five fortified samples at the limit of quantitation were assessed by LC/MS/MS to determine the specificity and selectivity of each compound.

4.11. Matrix Effect

Matrix effect was evaluated by comparing peak area of standard solution with spiked extracted matrix.

4.12. Designing a Method for Stacking BL Treatment Processes in the Laboratory

Broiler litter was removed from the facility over the course of a year. Stacking treatments were carried out in three separate jars containing 12 kg of BL over the course of three weeks. The initial moisture content balanced at 40%. The degradation rate for the stacking treatment was determined every week. Broiler litter free of drugs that originated from an antibiotic independent farm was spiked at initial concentrations of 5 mg kg−1 (low level), 10 mg kg−1 (medium level), 15, and 20 mg kg−1 (high level) with a mix of five representative antimicrobial drugs, namely, sulfisoxazole, amoxicillin, erythromycin, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin. A mix of 29 antimicrobials used in poultry farming and coccidiostats was also spiked at low concentrations of 0.5 mg kg−1 (low level), 1 mg kg−1 (medium level), 1.5, and 2 mg kg−1 (high level). Spiked BL samples were wrapped in cotton gauze fabric and mixed with BL in jars before each treatment and placed at the medium (n = 4) and upper layers (n = 4).

5. Conclusions

This study described a rapid method for simultaneous detection of a large number of antimicrobials and coccidiostats at residue concentrations. Effective extraction, cleaning, identification and quantification methods were essential to achieve good recovery and repeatability in a large number of samples containing low levels of pharmaceutical compounds in a complex matrix. The multi-residue analytical method reduced a large number of sample preparation steps and reduced the high analytical cost compared with traditional methods. This method offers an affordable tool for monitoring and understanding the presence, persistence, degradation, and relation between residue drugs and resistant bacteria in BL. Thus, this method will help to understand and mitigate animal and human health problems, as well as environmental effects, caused by antimicrobial and coccidiostat drug residues. The use of antimicrobials and coccidiostats in animal farming is of paramount concern with respect to human, animal, and environmental contamination issues and as a source of pathogenic-resistant bacteria. Still, most farmers use BL as ruminant feed and fertilizer without processing. Even though the effects of stacking treatment on degradation of antimicrobials were significantly high, the degradation of coccidiostats and tilmicosin were limited. At the same time, further study on decoquinate concentration-increasing phenomenon during treatments is needed.
This study supports the need for better understanding, regulation, management, and proper use of animal waste so as to protect and reduce the numbers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and use of antimicrobials that carry a high risk for animals, humans, and the environment.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ph17020203/s1, Table S1: Antibiotics and coccidiostats approved for use in poultry by national regulatory authorities in the USA, Brazil, China, Poland, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Israel, and Spain, based on national reports as described in Section 1; Table S2: Intra-day analytical recovery (in %) of 30 anti-microbials and coccidiostats in poultry litter as described in Section 2.1.1; Table S3: Inter-day analytical recovery (in %) of 30 antimicrobials and coccidiostats in broiler litter as described in Section 2.1.2; Table S4: Comparison of antimicrobial and coccidiostat degradation in poultry litter upon drying by oven or lyophilzation described in Section 4.2; Table S5: LC/MS/MS conditions as described in Section 4.2; Table S6: Determination of signal to noise (S/N) at the LOQ levels; Figure S1: Calibration curves for some antimicrobials and coccidiostats in fortified PL (n = 5) as described in Section 4.7; Figure S2: Chromtograms of beta-lactams in standard solution (a), blank matrix (b), and spiked matrix (c), Figure S3: Chromatograms of coccidiostats (positive mode) in standard solution (a), blank matrix (b), and spiked matrix (c); Figure S4: Chromatograms of coccidiostats (negative mode), in standard solution (a), blank matrix (b), and spiked matrix (c).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.B. and S.J.M.; Methodology, S.E., M.B., S.S., C.S. and S.J.M.; Validation, S.E., M.B. and S.J.M.; Formal analysis, S.E.; Investigation, S.E. and S.J.M.; Resources, S.J.M.; Data curation, S.S. and S.J.M.; Writing—original draft, S.E.; Writing—review & editing, M.B., S.S. and S.J.M.; Supervision, M.B. and S.J.M.; Project administration, M.B. and S.J.M.; Funding acquisition, M.B. and S.J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Chief Scientist, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development, grant number 33-09-0001.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available on request from S.J.M.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the contribution of BL treatment companies in Israel. The authors thank the chief scientist of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development for partial support of the project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Glaser, B.; Lehmann, J.; Zech, W. Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal—A review. Biol. Fertil. Soils 2002, 35, 219–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Bishop, E.; Wilke, P.; Nash, W.; Nell, J.; Macdonald, D.; Compaan, J.; Grobler, J.; Kingman, E. Poultry manure as a livestock feed. Farming S. Afr. 1971, 46, 34. [Google Scholar]
  3. Lyle, A.; Muller, J.; Dreyer, B. Over-Wintering of Oxen on Rested Veld Using Four Different Licks: Winter 1975; Report; Kokstad Research Station: Kokstad, South Africa, 1975.
  4. Rocha, A.G.; Dilkin, P.; Neto, R.M.; Schaefer, C.; Mallmann, C.A. Growth performance of broiler chickens fed on feeds with varying mixing homogeneity. Vet. Anim. Sci. 2022, 17, 100263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Hansen, M.; Björklund, E.; Krogh, K.A.; Halling-Sørensen, B. Analytical strategies for assessing ionophores in the environment. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2009, 28, 521–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Sun, P.; Cabrera, M.L.; Huang, C.-H.; Pavlostathis, S.G. Biodegradation of veterinary ionophore antibiotics in broiler litter and soil microcosms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 2724–2731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Food and Drug Administration. Summary Report on Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed for Use in Food-Producing Animals; Department of Health and Human Services: Washington, DC, USA, 2019.
  8. Furtula, V.; Farrell, E.; Diarrassouba, F.; Rempel, H.; Pritchard, J.; Diarra, M. Veterinary pharmaceuticals and antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates in poultry litter from commercial farms and controlled feeding trials. Poult. Sci. 2010, 89, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Hribar, C. Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010.
  10. Oehme, F.; Pickrell, J. An analysis of the chronic oral toxicity of polyether ionophore antibiotics in animals. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 1999, 41, 251–257. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  11. Bohn, P.; Bak, S.A.; Björklund, E.; Krogh, K.A.; Hansen, M. Abiotic degradation of antibiotic ionophores. Environ. Pollut. 2013, 182, 177–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Gorissen, B.; Reyns, T.; Devreese, M.; De Backer, P.; Van Loco, J.; Croubels, S. Determination of selected veterinary antimicrobials in poultry excreta by UHPLC-MS/MS, for application in Salmonella control programs. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2015, 407, 4447–4457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Karcı, A.; Balcıoğlu, I.A. Investigation of the tetracycline, sulfonamide, and fluoroquinolone antimicrobial compounds in animal manure and agricultural soils in Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 4652–4664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Kim, S.-C.; Carlson, K. Temporal and spatial trends in the occurrence of human and veterinary antibiotics in aqueous and river sediment matrices. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 50–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Sarmah, A.K.; Meyer, M.T.; Boxall, A.B. A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment. Chemosphere 2006, 65, 725–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Dolliver, H.; Gupta, S.; Noll, S. Antibiotic degradation during manure composting. J. Environ. Qual. 2008, 37, 1245–1253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Capleton, A.C.; Courage, C.; Rumsby, P.; Holmes, P.; Stutt, E.; Boxall, A.B.; Levy, L.S. Prioritising veterinary medicines according to their potential indirect human exposure and toxicity profile. Toxicol. Lett. 2006, 163, 213–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Hao, C.; Lissemore, L.; Nguyen, B.; Kleywegt, S.; Yang, P.; Solomon, K. Determination of pharmaceuticals in environmental waters by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2006, 384, 505–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Watanabe, N.; Harter, T.H.; Bergamaschi, B.A. Environmental occurrence and shallow ground water detection of the antibiotic monensin from dairy farms. J. Environ. Qual. 2008, 37, S-78–S-85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Rashid, A.; Mazhar, S.H.; Zeng, Q.; Kiki, C.; Yu, C.-P.; Sun, Q. Simultaneous analysis of multiclass antibiotic residues in complex environmental matrices by liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 2020, 1145, 122103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Xian-Gang, H.; Yi, L.; Qi-Xing, Z.; Lin, X. Determination of thirteen antibiotics residues in manure by solid phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography. Chin. J. Anal. Chem. 2008, 36, 1162–1166. [Google Scholar]
  22. Filigenzi, M.S.; Ehrke, N.; Aston, L.S.; Poppenga, R.H. Evaluation of a rapid screening method for chemical contaminants of concern in four food-related matrices using QuEChERS extraction, UHPLC and high resolution mass spectrometry. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2011, 28, 1324–1339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Poudel, U.; Dahal, U.; Dhakal, S. Review of poultry production and poultry vaccine manufacture in Nepal. Glob. J. Agric. Allied Sci. 2021, 3, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Svahn, O.; Björklund, E. Thermal stability assessment of antibiotics in moderate temperature and subcriticalwater using a pressurized dynamic flow-through system. Int. J. Innov. Appl. Stud. 2015, 11, 872–880. [Google Scholar]
  25. Usui, K.; Hayashizaki, Y.; Minagawa, T.; Hashiyada, M.; Nakano, A.; Funayama, M. Rapid determination of disulfoton and its oxidative metabolites in human whole blood and urine using QuEChERS extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Leg. Med. 2012, 14, 309–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Guo, C.; Wang, M.; Xiao, H.; Huai, B.; Wang, F.; Pan, G.; Liao, X.; Liu, Y. Development of a modified QuEChERS method for the determination of veterinary antibiotics in swine manure by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 2016, 1027, 110–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Arikan, O.A.; Mulbry, W.; Rice, C. The effect of composting on the persistence of four ionophores in dairy manure and poultry litter. Waste Manag. 2016, 54, 110–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Hurst, J.J.; Wallace, J.S.; Aga, D.S. Method development for the analysis of ionophore antimicrobials in dairy manure to assess removal within a membrane-based treatment system. Chemosphere 2018, 197, 271–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Pugazhendhi, A.; Theivaraj, S.D.; Boovaragamoorthy, G.M.; Veeramani, V.; Brindhadevi, K.; Al-Dhabi, N.A.; Arasu, M.V.; Kaliannan, T. Impact on degradation of antibiotics from poultry litter using Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (ATAD). Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2021, 28, 988–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Yévenes, K.; Pokrant, E.; Trincado, L.; Lapierre, L.; Galarce, N.; Martín, B.S.; Maddaleno, A.; Hidalgo, H.; Cornejo, J. Detection of antimicrobial residues in poultry litter: Monitoring a risk through a selective and sensitive HPLC–MS/MS method. Animals 2021, 11, 1399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Anderson, T.; Van Alstine, W.; Ficken, M.; Miskimins, D.; Carson, T.; Osweiler, G. Acute monensin toxicosis in sheep: Light and electron microscopic changes. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1984, 45, 1142–1147. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  32. Sun, P.; Liu, B.; Ahmed, I.; Yang, J.; Zhang, B. Composting effect and antibiotic removal under a new temperature control strategy. J. Waste Manag. 2022, 153, 89–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Martínez-Carballo, E.; González-Barreiro, C.; Scharf, S.; Gans, O. Environmental monitoring study of selected veterinary antibiotics in animal manure and soils in Austria. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 148, 570–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Majors, E. Sample Preparation Fundamentals for Chromatography; Agilent Technologies, Inc.: Santa Clara, CA, USA, 2013; Volume 13. [Google Scholar]
  35. Wohde, M.; Berkner, S.; Junker, T.; Sabine Konradi, S.; Schwarz, L.; Düring, A. Occurrence and transformation of veterinary pharmaceuticals and biocides in manure: A literature review. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2016, 28, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Dias, B.O.; Silva, C.A.; Higashikawa, F.S.; Roig, A.; Sánchez-Monedero, M.A. Use of biochar as bulking agent for the composting of poultry manure: Effect on organic matter degradation and humification. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 1239–1246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kiss, N.É.; Tamás, J.; Szőllősi, N.; Gorliczay, E.; Nagy, A. Assessment of composted pelletized poultry litter as an alternative to chemical fertilizers based on the environmental impact of their production. Agriculture 2021, 11, 1130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Leal, R.M.P.; Figueira, R.F.; Tornisielo, V.L.; Regitano, J.B. Occurrence and sorption of fluoroquinolones in poultry litters and soils from São Paulo State, Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 432, 344–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Van Epps, A.; Blaney, L. Antibiotic residues in animal waste: Occurrence and degradation in conventional agricultural waste management practices. Curr. Pollut. Rep. 2016, 2, 135–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Zhao, L.; Dong, Y.H.; Wang, H. Residues of veterinary antibiotics in manures from feedlot livestock in eight provinces of China. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 1069–1075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Bastianello, S.S.; Fourie, N.; Nel, P.; Kellerman, T.S.; Prozesky, L. Cardiomyopathy of ruminants induced by the litter of poultry fed on rations containing the ionophore antibiotic, maduramicin. II. Macropathology and histopathology. Onderstepoort. J. Vet. Res. 1995, 62, 5–18. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  42. Confer, A.; Reavis, D.; Panciera, R. Light and electron microscopic changes in cardiac and skeletal muscle of sheep with experimental monensin toxicosis. Vet. Pathol. 1983, 20, 590–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Gonzalez, M.; Barkema, H.W.; Keefe, G.P. Monensin toxicosis in a dairy herd. Can. Vet. J. 2005, 46, 910. [Google Scholar]
  44. Huyben, M.; Sol, J.; Counotte, G.; Roumen, M.; Borst, G.H.A. Salinomycin poisoning in veal calves. Vet. Rec. 2001, 149, 183–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Esperón, F.; Albero, B.; Ugarte-Ruíz, M.; Domínguez, L.; Carballo, M.; Tadeo, J.L.; del Mar Delgado, M.; Moreno, M.Á.; de la Torre, A. Assessing the benefits of composting poultry manure in reducing antimicrobial residues, pathogenic bacteria, and antimicrobial resistance genes: A field-scale study. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 27738–27749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Subirats, J.; Murray, R.; Scott, A.; Lau, C.H.-F.; Topp, E. Composting of chicken litter from commercial broiler farms reduces the abundance of viable enteric bacteria, Firmicutes, and selected antibiotic resistance genes. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 746, 141113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Tappe, W.; Herbst, M.; Hofmann, D.; Koeppchen, S.; Kummer, S.; Thiele, B.; Groeneweg, J. Degradation of sulfadiazine by Microbacterium lacus strain SDZm4, isolated from lysimeters previously manured with slurry from sulfadiazine-medicated pigs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2013, 79, 2572–2577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Šabić, M.; Čižmek, L.; Vuković Domanovac, M.; Meštrović, E. Biodegradation of erythromycin with environmental microorganism Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3011. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 2015, 29, 367–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Ho, Y.B.; Zakaria, M.P.; Latif, P.A.; Saari, N. Degradation of veterinary antibiotics and hormone during broiler manure composting. Bioresour. Technol. 2013, 131, 476–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Ramaswamy, J.; Prasher, S.O.; Patel, R.M.; Hussain, S.A.; Barrington, S.F. The effect of composting on the degradation of a veterinary pharmaceutical. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 2294–2299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Munaretto, J.S.; Yonkos, L.; Aga, D.S. Transformation of ionophore antimicrobials in poultry litter during pilot-scale composting. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 212, 392–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. EFSA Panel on Additives, Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (EFSA FEEDAP Panel); Bampidis, V.; Azimonti, G.; Bastos, M.d.L.; Christensen, H.; Dusemund, B.; Kouba, M.; Kos Durjava, M.; López-Alonso, M.; López Puente, S. Safety and efficacy of Deccox® (decoquinate) for chickens for fattening. EFSA J. 2019, 17, e05541. [Google Scholar]
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g001
Figure 1. Chromtograms of antimicrobials in standard solution (a), blank matrix (b), and spiked matrix (c).
Figure 1. Chromtograms of antimicrobials in standard solution (a), blank matrix (b), and spiked matrix (c).
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g001
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g002
Figure 2. Medium concentration ppb (µg kg−1) of antimicrobial and coccidiostats in broiler litter in Israel (2019–2021): (A) northeast (n = 11), (B) northwest (n = 11), (C) south (n = 15) and (D) other regions (n = 5). Error bars represent the SD.
Figure 2. Medium concentration ppb (µg kg−1) of antimicrobial and coccidiostats in broiler litter in Israel (2019–2021): (A) northeast (n = 11), (B) northwest (n = 11), (C) south (n = 15) and (D) other regions (n = 5). Error bars represent the SD.
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g002
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g003aPharmaceuticals 17 00203 g003b
Figure 3. Residual percentage of ten antimicrobial and coccidiostat drugs after stacking broiler litter treatment. * (Significant).
Figure 3. Residual percentage of ten antimicrobial and coccidiostat drugs after stacking broiler litter treatment. * (Significant).
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g003aPharmaceuticals 17 00203 g003b
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g004
Figure 4. Analytical scheme for drug determination in broiler litter.
Figure 4. Analytical scheme for drug determination in broiler litter.
Pharmaceuticals 17 00203 g004
Table 1. Intra-day analytical recovery (in %) of 30 antimicrobials and coccidiostats in broiler litter.
Table 1. Intra-day analytical recovery (in %) of 30 antimicrobials and coccidiostats in broiler litter.
GroupAnalyte0.1 mg kg−1 RSD %1.5 mg kg−1 RSD %
CoccidiostatsNarasin76109220
Diclazuril954965
Clopidol1019977
Nicarbazine8020954
Maduramycin 8868411
Monensin 8711964
Robenidine 116101052
Salinomycin 7012954
Semduramycin112111019
Lasalocid11361010
Decoquinate10591052
SulfonamidesSulfachloropyrazine101201025
Sulfachloropyridazine11081012
Sulfadiazine112171092
Sulfadimidine130159912
Sulfaquinoxaline874985
Sulfadoxine12471072
MacrolidesTilmicosin103121042
Tylosin8412941
Erythromycin116191048
FluoroquinolonesDanofloxacin124151032
Ciprofloxacin128171050
Norfloxacin85191014
Enrofloxacin114171032
TetracyclineDoxycycline Hyclate100141117
Oxytetracycline 10259724
Chlortetracycline 116191048
Tetracycline8451024
b-LactamsAmoxicillin trihydrate1021411218
Ampicillin96101025
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Efriem, S.; Britzi, M.; Soback, S.; Sabastian, C.; Mabjeesh, S.J. A Multi-Residue Analytical Method for Assessing the Effects of Stacking Treatment on Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Degradation in Broiler Litter. Pharmaceuticals 2024, 17, 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17020203

AMA Style

Efriem S, Britzi M, Soback S, Sabastian C, Mabjeesh SJ. A Multi-Residue Analytical Method for Assessing the Effects of Stacking Treatment on Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Degradation in Broiler Litter. Pharmaceuticals. 2024; 17(2):203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17020203

Chicago/Turabian Style

Efriem, Solomon, Malka Britzi, Stefan Soback, Chris Sabastian, and Sameer J. Mabjeesh. 2024. "A Multi-Residue Analytical Method for Assessing the Effects of Stacking Treatment on Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Degradation in Broiler Litter" Pharmaceuticals 17, no. 2: 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17020203

APA Style

Efriem, S., Britzi, M., Soback, S., Sabastian, C., & Mabjeesh, S. J. (2024). A Multi-Residue Analytical Method for Assessing the Effects of Stacking Treatment on Antimicrobial and Coccidiostat Degradation in Broiler Litter. Pharmaceuticals, 17(2), 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17020203

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop