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Sensors
Volume 26
Issue 1
10.3390/s26010022
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

A Softsensor for Wind Measurements in Karst Caves

by
Juš Kocijan
1,2,*,
Matija Perne
1,3,
Franci Gabrovšek
3,4,
Primož Mlakar
5,
Boštjan Grašič
5 and
Marija Zlata Božnar
5
1
Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
Centre for Information Technologies and Applied Mathematics, University of Nova Gorica, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia
3
Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
4
Karst Research Institute, Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts ZRC-SAZU, 6230 Postojna, Slovenia
5
MEIS d.o.o., Mali Vrh pri Šmarju, 1293 Šmarje – Sap, Slovenia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sensors 2026, 26(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26010022 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 13 November 2025 / Revised: 11 December 2025 / Accepted: 17 December 2025 / Published: 19 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensing Technologies for Environmental Monitoring and Detection)
Versions Notes

Abstract

A data-driven soft sensor of wind in a cave passage is developed as an alternative to physical anemometers for measuring wind velocity. It is intended to either fill data gaps during periods without physical measurements or to serve as a substitute for the physical sensor. It is implemented as a Gaussian process model, trained on one year of half-hourly measurements. Statistical measures and visual inspection of the test data indicate that both selected model structures perform well. Therefore, soft sensors represent a viable tool in underground meteorology. They may replace physical sensors that are fragile, power-intensive, or expensive. Alternatively, they can fill data gaps when a physical sensor is unavailable.
Keywords: soft sensor; karst; cave; meteorology soft sensor; karst; cave; meteorology

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kocijan, J.; Perne, M.; Gabrovšek, F.; Mlakar, P.; Grašič, B.; Božnar, M.Z. A Softsensor for Wind Measurements in Karst Caves. Sensors 2026, 26, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/s26010022

AMA Style

Kocijan J, Perne M, Gabrovšek F, Mlakar P, Grašič B, Božnar MZ. A Softsensor for Wind Measurements in Karst Caves. Sensors. 2026; 26(1):22. https://doi.org/10.3390/s26010022

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kocijan, Juš, Matija Perne, Franci Gabrovšek, Primož Mlakar, Boštjan Grašič, and Marija Zlata Božnar. 2026. "A Softsensor for Wind Measurements in Karst Caves" Sensors 26, no. 1: 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/s26010022

APA Style

Kocijan, J., Perne, M., Gabrovšek, F., Mlakar, P., Grašič, B., & Božnar, M. Z. (2026). A Softsensor for Wind Measurements in Karst Caves. Sensors, 26(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/s26010022

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