1. Introduction
A vast amount of plastic waste is being generated globally, along with the ever-growing demand for plastic products. It is estimated that about 6.3 gigatons (Gt) of plastic waste has been generated over the past 100 years. Among this waste, only 9% was recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was collected in landfills or directly disposed of in the natural environment. According to the prediction in [
1], by 2050, around 12 Gt of plastic waste could accumulate in the global environment.
Mismanaged plastic waste may end up in the oceans. Due to several factors, such as waves, currents, or radiant solar heat, plastic breaks down into smaller pieces in water. These plastic particles that are within the size range of 1 μm to 5 mm are often referred to as microplastics (MP) [
2]. Due to their tiny sizes, microplastics can be unintentionally consumed by marine organisms such as zooplankton or fish [
3]. Moreover, these particles can also be transferred to larger animals via the food chain [
4]. Microplastics can also accumulate in humans, as their occurrence was observed in human feces [
5]. It has been clear that lower-level organisms can be negatively affected by the accumulation of microplastics inside their bodies, as it may impact their growth or survival [
6]. With respect to human beings, the contribution of microplastics to overall chemical intake is rather small [
7], thereby the long-term impact of microplastics on our health is still disputable, and consequently, more research shall be conducted on this issue [
8]. Nevertheless, being able to clean microplastics from the marine environment can be beneficial for long-term environmental protection as well as the reduction of health risks to human beings. There are two vital things that need to be considered to extract microplastics from water systems, i.e., some cost-effective capturing technologies as well as microplastics (online) measuring technologies [
9].
Extensive research and lab-based instruments for measuring and analyzing microplastics have been developed in recent decades, such as the use of Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and light absorption technology [
9]. However, little work can be found regarding in-field continuous (real-time) MP measurements. Depending on the kind of quantitative measurement index, besides the applied specific detection method/technology, the main challenge of online MP measurement also depends on the complicated features of MP and the carrying media, such as different MP sizes, shapes, and chemical compositions, as well as whether they are air-borne or water-borne, local point or wide open area, etc. Regarding the water-borne MP, the online fluorescence-based sensor could be applicable if the fluorescent dye can be added to the measurement stream, though some MP compositions possess a low affinity for fluorescent dye. The turbidity-based sensor could also be applied for concentration measurement if the aquatic turbidity variation is mainly the result of the dispersed MP compounds. The online (optical) microscopy-based sensor can also be applied for online MP concentration measurement if there is no desire to distinguish between different MP compositions (e.g., no mass concentration). The measured information and its accuracy depend on the selected sensing technology/instrument, application circumstances, and the user’s expectations. However, some reliable online measurements can not only provide dynamic information about the undergoing process, but also benefit the MP capturing process if the online MP measurement can be fed back to the process control system [
10].
The currently common technology used to collect MP from aquatic systems is a type of filter-based filtration technique/system; however, the notorious fouling problem often needs to be carefully handled [
11,
12] in filter systems. Moreover, the filtration technology often comes with high costs and installation footprints. Inspired by previous work on the monitoring and control of de-oiling hydrocyclone process to clean the produced water in offshore oil & gas production [
13,
14,
15,
16,
17], this work investigates the feasibility of applying a commercial (de-oiling) hydrocyclone system for MP capture from a point water resource. Following the physical separation principle, the hydrocyclone system can separate different liquid media from a continuous liquid phase based on their different densities using the centripetal force generated from a dedicated mechanical design and hydro-dynamical control [
18]. Due to its high mechanical, thermal, and chemical robustness, small installation footprint, and extremely low CAPEX and OPEX (as well as the absence of chemical and bio materials), the hydrocyclone technology has been extensively used in various industrial applications.
To evaluate the MP capture efficiency of the considered hydrocyclone system, a set of commercial online microscopy sensors is deployed for online measurement of the MP volume concentration at the inlet and outlet of the hydrocyclone system. To guarantee reliable online MP measurements, a statistic-based calibration procedure is first proposed for the deployed microscopy sensor system. Furthermore, the hydrocyclone system is also controlled to mimic different flow conditions to find the optimal operating condition(s) that can lead to the highest capture efficiency. The experimental work conducted on a lab-scaled flow-loop system achieved the highest efficiency of 87.76% under dedicated hydrocylone operating conditions and the use of different sizes of artificial polyethylene particles.
The novel contributions of this paper lie in three folds: (i) a statistic-based calibration method is proposed, which combines different statistical features into the selection of the best calibration parameters for the deployed online microscopy systems; (ii) the separation efficiency of the deployed hydrocyclone system can be cost-effectively controlled by manipulating its underflow and overflow control valves, instead of making hardware retrofits, such as changing the hydrocyclone’s geometry and size, which can be economically expensive and time-consuming; finally, (iii) this study reveals that by properly controlling its operating flexibility, the deployed hydrocyclone system can still achieve a quite high MP capture efficiency, though it is initially designed to clean the water produced along with offshore oil and gas production [
13,
18].
Some relevant literature reported that the MP removal efficiency can be lifted to over 99% for some dedicated mini-hydrocyclones and specific MP compositions [
19,
20,
21]. This also indicates that the efficiency of the hydrocyclone system used in this study could be further improved and kept robust by proper geometric and mechanical retrofits, along with a good process control solution. The differences between this study and the aforementioned literature lie in two perspectives: (i) the separation efficiency was assessed by various offline methods in those studies while the online sensor is used in this study. On one hand, the offline approaches could lead to more accurate measurement at the steady operation, but on the other hand, these methods cannot be used for assessing dynamic behaviors due to lack of real-time capability. (ii) The operational efficiency of a hydrocyclone system not only depends on its feeding flow rate but is also heavily impacted by its pressure-drop-ratio (PDR) [
13,
16,
17,
18], which is defined as the ratio of the differential pressure between the overflow and inlet over the differential pressure between the underflow and inlet. Thereby, both the PDR control and flow control are coordinated in this study by controlling the overflow and underflow control valves (in addition to controlling the supply pump speed), while the other literature focused only on the flow control to emulate different operating conditions.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. MP Particles for Calibration and Testing
Two sets of polystyrene micro-beads manufactured by BS-Partikel are used as calibration particles, and they are supposed to follow the normal distribution as stated by the manufacturer:
mean diameter —40.3 μm, and the Standard Deviation (STD) —0.89 μm;
mean diameter —79.4 μm, and the STD —1.75 μm.
A total of 50 g of calibration particles are mixed with water to prepare the calibration fluid that circulates through the calibration setup, as shown in
Figure 1. Approximately 80% of added micro-beads are small, and the remaining 20% are large.
For the cyclone-based separation experiments, the red polyethylene (PE) micro-spheres produced by Cospheric LLC, with a density of 0.98 g/cc and two different size ranges of 53–63 μm and 70–90 μm, are used. Approximately 30 g of small micro-spheres and 10 g of large ones are mixed with 170 L of tap water in the mixture tank.
2.2. Microscopy Sensing System
The online microscopy sensing system used in this study is a commercial product named Visual Process Analyser (ViPA), manufactured by Process Imaging Limited (former Jorin Limited). The sensing unit contains a high-resolution digital video camera on one side of a flow cell and a light source on the other side. The built-in software performs a dedicated image processing algorithm based on obtained sequential data to provide quantitative information, such as the number of detected particles, their sizes or volumes, and thereby the (volumetric) concentration measurement. The highest frequency of measurement update is one Hertz. The key technical parameters of ViPA sensors are presented in
Table 1 [
14].
2.3. Calibration Setup and Statistic-Based Calibration Method
A dedicated calibration method based on diverse statistical tests is proposed in this study, and the calibration data is generated based on the calibration setup illustrated in
Figure 1. Two ViPAs were connected in series, and a mixture of demineralized water and calibration (BS) particles circulated through this flow loop via the centrifugal pump with a constant flow rate.
There are two (user-oriented) tuning parameters when calibrating the ViPA system:
The edge-strength-value (ESV) of a detected particle is defined as the gradient in the grey scale from the background at its edges. The higher the ESV, the sharper the detected object appears to be in a frame at the number range of 0–10. The manufacturer of the ViPA sensor does not specify the method behind calculating the ESV; however, it is presumed that some version of the Sobel filter is applied.
The threshold-value (TV) determines the level of darkness required for the pixels of a particle to be detected at the number range of 0–255. The higher the TV, the darker the particle needs to be in order to be classified as one.
The proper choices of these parameters can significantly affect the detection and measurement of existing particles and their overall quantities. For example, two different cases, named Liberal and Strict scenarios, are illustrated in
Figure 2, where the selected edge is visualized with a white contour.
Normally, the ESV and TV are recommended based on visual inspection of a number of images of calibration particles. Even if the white contour may fit relatively well to manually analyzed particles, calibration settings may be inaccurate overall, as the degree of haziness varies substantially throughout all captured images. Therefore, a more reliable calibration method is required. In this paper, we propose a statistic-based calibration method through which the optimal ESV and TV values are chosen with respect to the minimal variation of selected statistical features based on the extensive calibration experimental data rather than human perception. We would like to note that the application of cutting-edge image processing algorithms is beyond the scope of this study.
The original experimental (image) data obtained by ViPA systems is processed according to different possible combinations of ESV and TV choices by applying the ViPA built-in software. The ESV is chosen from , and TV is chosen from , which in total adds up to 620 different combinations. The obtained data from different cases are assessed based on their proximity to the dedicated distribution feature claimed by calibration BS particles through committing dedicated statistic tests, such as the z-test, Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, chi-square test, Kullback–Leibler divergence, Jensen–Shannon divergence, and sum of squared errors. The best combinations w.r.t. different testing criteria are further validated using the measured data regarding the large particles ().
2.4. Hydrocyclone System and Its Control
During this study, an off-the-shelf commercial hydrocyclone liner (Vortoil D35) produced by Schlumberger is used. Vortoil D35 was initially designed as a deoiling hydrocyclone for produced water treatment in oil and gas production. More information about this type of system and its de-oiling application can be found in [
13,
15,
16,
17]. The Hydrocyclone performs separation based on density differences of a mixture. It consists of an inlet, through which a mixture is injected into the cylinder segment. A type of vortex can be created inside the hydrocyclone chamber due to the centripetal force; thereby, the lighter phase moves towards the center of the chamber to form an air/oil rich core, then this core stream is repelled out of the hydrocyclone via its overflow outlet. The heavier phase moves closer to the wall and exits the hydrocyclone via its underflow outlet. Different from the typical membrane filtration process where the rejected compound(s) often accumulate upon the filter’s surface, which naturally causes the fouling problem [
11], the hydrocyclone system collects the rejected compound at its overflow outlet, while the cleaned stream flows through the hydrocyclone without any fouling-induced resistance [
13,
18].
A testing flow loop is constructed at our laboratory. The schematic diagram of the setup is shown in
Figure 3. Two sampling side streams are adopted in this configuration to guarantee the flow rates over these two installed ViPA sensors within the specified condition. Sensor ViPA-1 is used to measure the inlet’s particle concentration, whereas sensor ViPA-2 measures the underflow’s particle concentration. Consequently, the MP capture efficiency can be calculated accordingly. The subscript
i indicates the hydrocyclone’s inlet relevance,
u indicates the hydrocyclone’s underflow relevance,
o indicates the hydrocyclone’s overflow relevance, and
indicates the underflow’s side-stream relevance,
indicates the inlet’s side-stream relevance. A mechanic mixer is installed in the circulation tank to prevent any undesired separation of micro-beads from water inside the tank due to the gravity impact.
Besides these ViPA sensors, a set of pressure sensors denoted as
P and flow meters denoted as
Q is also installed in this setup to monitor and control the hydrocyclone’s operating condition. For example, these pressure measurements
,
, and
are utilized to calculate the PDR according to Equation (
1), which is one of the key operating parameters for hydrocyclone operation [
13,
18]. Moreover, it is often used to control the hydrocyclone system to maintain its adequate separation efficiency, which is denoted as
e here and is defined as Equation (
2), where
and
represent the volume concentration at the underflow and inlet, respectively.
A number of control valves, denoted as V, are installed to manipulate different operating conditions. By varying the opening degrees of the underflow and overflow valves, a set of experiments is conducted. During the experiment, the opening degree of increased from 50% to 100% step-by-step with a step size of 5%. During each step of ’s opening degree, the opening degree of changes from 0% to 50% with a piece-wise step size of 5%. This procedure results in 121 piece-wise constant segments of the opening degrees of and . The duration of each segment is about 5 min. One whole experiment took about 10 h and 10 min. The opening degrees of valves and are individually controlled by a developed PI controller using flow-rate feedback from and , respectively, to maintain a proper side-stream flow rate through individual ViPA sensors.
4. Conclusions
This work investigated the effectiveness and efficiency of capturing microplastics from the aquatic system using the hydrocyclone system and online microscopy sensors. To be sure that the online microscopy sensors provide reliable and accurate measurements, a statistical calibration method is proposed based on different statistical indices, instead of just following a non-statistical and subjective approach. The calibration parameters of ESV and TV provided, along with the selected commercial ViPA sensors, are carefully selected after sufficient statistical analysis based on total 620 data scenarios for both ViPA sensors. The best calibration setting is also validated using other calibration particles of different size. This systematical approach can help make applications of online microscopy sensors more reliable and confident with the data obtained. We also believe that the proposed statistic-based calibration method could also be applicable for general online microscopy calibration as well.
The effectiveness and efficiency of a type of de-oiling hydrocyclone system for capturing microplastics from water systems is further assessed using the calibrated online microscopy sensors. It can be clearly observed from
Figure 10 and
Figure 11 that the applied hydrocyclone system can effectively remove microplastics from the water system, subject to proper operating conditions, and the separation efficiency can be achieved up to 87.76% during our study, though this hydrocyclone system is originally designed for de-oiling for offshore produced water treatment. Of course, this type of de-oiling hydrocyclone system is not suitable for capturing microplastics with densities heavier than water or in a scenario where the microplastics concentration at the feeding flow is too high (e.g., over 1%). Some other types of hydrocyclone/cyclone systems, such as de-sanding cyclone systems or dedicated hydrocyclones, need to be investigated for effective capture of “heavy” microplastics [
10,
20,
21]. The combination of the design of some dedicated hydrocyclone/cyclone system, together with smart process control, e.g., AI-based control solutions [
17], could be an interesting topic in our future work.