Imaging of Structural Timber Based on In Situ Radar and Ultrasonic Wave Measurements: A Review of the State-of-the-Art
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Properties of Wood and Timber
2.1. Macro and Micro Structure
2.2. Electrical Properties
2.3. Mechanical Properties
3. Non-Destructive Testing
4. Semi-Destructive Testing
5. State-of-the-Art in Imaging of Mass Timber
5.1. Fundamentals of Imaging
5.1.1. A-, B-, and C-Scans
5.1.2. SAFT
5.1.3. Tomography
5.1.4. Full Waveform Inversion Imaging
5.2. GPR-Based Imaging
5.3. Ultrasonic-Based Imaging
6. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Frequency (GHz) | Wood Species | Dielectric Properties | Moisture Content (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 15 | 28 | 33 | |||
2.45 | Poplar | 1.7 | 2.88 | 3.93 | - | |
1.48 | 2.06 | 2.85 | - | |||
Alder | 1.88 | 3.1 | 4.33 | - | ||
1.63 | 2.34 | 3.4 | - | |||
Oriental beech | 2.26 | 3.38 | 4.77 | - | ||
1.93 | 3.04 | 4.38 | - | |||
2.7 | Spruce | - | - | - | 2.18 |
Wood Species | Density (g/cm3) | Modulus of Elasticity (kg/mm2) | Longitudinal Stress Wave Velocity Parallel to Grain (m/s) | Longitudinal Stress Wave Velocity Perpendicular to Grain (m/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ash, White | 0.638 | 1249 | 3968–5076 | - |
Beech | 0.655 | 1180 | - | 1670 |
Birch, Yellow | 0.668 | 1400 | 4348–5748 | 1399–1480 |
Cherry, Black | 0.534 | 1046 | 4831–5435 | 1451–1613 |
Pine | 0.3–0.7 | 850–1450 | 5000–5883 | 1066–1146 |
Spruce | 0.4–0.7 | 1000–1070 | 5883 | 931–1310 |
Oak, Live | 0.977 | 1381 | - | 627–1631 |
Oak, Red | 0.657 | 1274 | 3311–5882 | 1548–1754 |
Oak, White | 0.710 | 1251 | - | 1258 |
Maple, Sugar | 0.676 | 1290 | 3906–5155 | - |
Name | Physical Principle | Working Principle (Equipment Used) | Applications | Use | Use as an Imaging Method | Available Codes/Standards |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-destructive Techniques | ||||||
Sounding | Sound waves |
| Identifying degraded areas, cracks, voids, thickness | Both lab and field settings for both live and processed timber | × | |
IR | Infrared thermal radiation |
| Identifying cracks, voids, mechanical failures, impurities | Both lab and field settings for both live and processed timber | ✓ | -ASTM D4788-03 [76] |
X-ray | Electromagnetic radiation |
| Identifying internal structure, corrosion, defects, cracks | Typically, lab-based for safety | ✓ | -ASTM E2767-21 [77] |
UST | Sound waves (ultrasonic) |
| Detecting internal defects, measuring material thickness, assessing material properties, cracks, delamination, corrosion, structural integrity | Field and lab, live timber, processed timber | ✓ | -ISO 16810 [78], -ISO 16827 [79], -ASTM E2663-14 [80] |
GPR | Electromagnetic waves |
| Detecting internal defects, decay, void, cracks, moisture | Field and lab; can be applied to both live and processed timber | ✓ | -ASTM D6432-19 [81] |
ER | Variation of electrical conductivity of wood |
| Detecting moisture and decay in timber | Field and lab, processed and live timber | ✓ | |
Semi-destructive Techniques | ||||||
DR | Mechanical friction |
| Assessing the density and hardness of different wood species, quantify deterioration | Usable in the field, but not a standard method for assessing timber quality | × |
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Pahnabi, N.; Schumacher, T.; Sinha, A. Imaging of Structural Timber Based on In Situ Radar and Ultrasonic Wave Measurements: A Review of the State-of-the-Art. Sensors 2024, 24, 2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092901
Pahnabi N, Schumacher T, Sinha A. Imaging of Structural Timber Based on In Situ Radar and Ultrasonic Wave Measurements: A Review of the State-of-the-Art. Sensors. 2024; 24(9):2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092901
Chicago/Turabian StylePahnabi, Narges, Thomas Schumacher, and Arijit Sinha. 2024. "Imaging of Structural Timber Based on In Situ Radar and Ultrasonic Wave Measurements: A Review of the State-of-the-Art" Sensors 24, no. 9: 2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092901
APA StylePahnabi, N., Schumacher, T., & Sinha, A. (2024). Imaging of Structural Timber Based on In Situ Radar and Ultrasonic Wave Measurements: A Review of the State-of-the-Art. Sensors, 24(9), 2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092901