Two-Phase Framework for Indoor Positioning Systems Using Visible Light †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Visible Light Positioning Systems
3. Two-Phase Positioning Framework
3.1. Model Framework
3.2. Coarse Phase
3.2.1. Modulations
Pulsed Modulation
Muti-Carrier Modulations
3.2.2. Multiple Access
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) & Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
3.3. Fine Phase
3.4. Fine Phase-Triangulation Based Positioning Using AoA
3.5. Fine Phase-Trilateration Based Positioning Using ToF or RSS
- RF Channel: , where is the gain of the transmit antenna, is the gain of the receive antenna, is the wavelength of the RF signal.
- VLC Channel: , where angle of emission dependent transmit optics, is the effective area of the photodetector, is the angle of incidence dependent concentration optics at the receiver.
4. Results
4.1. Coarse
4.1.1. Coarse Phase-Proximity-Based Positioning with Time Division Multiplexing
4.1.2. Coarse Phase-Proximity-Based Positioning with Frequency Division Multiplexing
4.1.3. Coarse Phase-Proximity-Based Positioning with Code Division Multiplexing
4.2. Fine
4.3. Two-Phase
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Value | Units |
---|---|---|
Optical Tx Power | 1.924 | W |
Lambertian Mode | 1 | - |
Effective Area of Rx | 0.81 | |
Electron Charge | C | |
Background Light Current | A | |
Speed of Light | m/s | |
Noise PSD | W/Hz | |
Optical / Electrical Efficiency | 0.53 | - |
Source Orientation Vector | - | |
Rx Azimuth Angle | rad | |
Rx Elevation Angle | rad | |
Rx Orientation Vector | ||
Vertical Range | 2.2 | m |
Symbol Rate | 20 | symbols/s |
Source Bandwidth | 20 | MHz |
Field of View | rad | |
Wall Reflectivity | 0.6 | - |
Coarse Phase Multiplexing Scheme | Benefits | Drawbacks |
---|---|---|
OFDM | Better suited for high data rate communication, Asynchronous | Complex Modulator and Demodulator |
TDM | Simplistic | Requires Network Infrastructure, Highly Accurate Clocks, Synchronous |
CDM | Asynchronous | Multiple Access Interference, Codes are not fully orthogonal |
Pulsed Modulation Using TDM | Mean Positioning Error [m] | Median Positioning Error [m] | Mode Positioning Error [m] | Standard Deviation Positioning Error [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|
OOK | 0.315 | 0.3149 | 0.0065 | 0.1437 |
2PPM | 0.315 | 0.3149 | 0.0065 | 0.1437 |
4PAM | 0.315 | 0.3149 | 0.0065 | 0.1437 |
Multicarrier Modulation Using OFDM | Mean Positioning Error [m] | Median Positioning Error [m] | Mode Positioning Error [m] | Standard Deviation Positioning Error [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|
ACO-OFDM | 0.305 | 0.3029 | 0.0056 | 0.1232 |
DCO-OFDM | 0.305 | 0.3029 | 0.0056 | 0.1232 |
Pulsed Modulation Using CDM | Mean Positioning Error [m] | Median Positioning Error [m] | Mode Positioning Error [m] | Standard Deviation Positioning Error [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|
OOK | 0.3406 | 0.3258 | 0.0121 | 0.1643 |
2PPM | 0.3404 | 0.3278 | 0.0285 | 0.1515 |
4PAM | 0.3321 | 0.3205 | 0.0095 | 0.1578 |
Coarse Phase Multiplexing Scheme | Mean Pos. Error [m] | Median Pos. Error [m] | Mode Pos. Error [m] | Std Dev. Pos. Error [m] | 90 Percent Precision |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OFDM-ALL | 0.305 | 0.3029 | 0.0056 | 0.1232 | 0.498 |
TDM-ALL | 0.315 | 0.3149 | 0.0065 | 0.1437 | 0.5085 |
CDM-4PAM | 0.3321 | 0.3205 | 0.0095 | 0.1578 | 0.563 |
CDM-2PPM | 0.3404 | 0.3278 | 0.0285 | 0.1515 | 0.565 |
CDM-OOK | 0.3406 | 0.3258 | 0.0121 | 0.1643 | 0.575 |
Performance Metric | Average Positioning Error [m] | Median Positioning Error [m] | Std Dev Positioning Error [m] |
---|---|---|---|
CDM with RSS | 0.1142 | 0.0931 | 0.1050 |
OFDM with AOA | 0.0778 | 0.0422 | 0.1191 |
OFDM with RSS | 0.0608 | 0.0260 | 0.1252 |
TDM with AOA | 0.1213 | 0.0985 | 0.1014 |
TDM with RSS | 0.1059 | 0.0803 | 0.1067 |
TDM with TOF | 0.0616 | 0.0276 | 0.1249 |
Performance Metric | Average Positioning Error [m] | Median Positioning Error [m] | Std Dev Positioning Error [m] |
---|---|---|---|
CDM with RSS | 0.1413 | 0.0997 | 0.0704 |
OFDM with AOA | 0.0988 | 0.0452 | 0.0790 |
OFDM with RSS | 0.0826 | 0.0328 | 0.0880 |
TDM with AOA | 0.1403 | 0.1207 | 0.0539 |
TDM with RSS | 0.1254 | 0.0975 | 0.0627 |
TDM with TOF | 0.0833 | 0.0309 | 0.0877 |
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Prince, G.B.; Little, T.D.C. Two-Phase Framework for Indoor Positioning Systems Using Visible Light †. Sensors 2018, 18, 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061917
Prince GB, Little TDC. Two-Phase Framework for Indoor Positioning Systems Using Visible Light †. Sensors. 2018; 18(6):1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061917
Chicago/Turabian StylePrince, Gregary B., and Thomas D. C. Little. 2018. "Two-Phase Framework for Indoor Positioning Systems Using Visible Light †" Sensors 18, no. 6: 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061917
APA StylePrince, G. B., & Little, T. D. C. (2018). Two-Phase Framework for Indoor Positioning Systems Using Visible Light †. Sensors, 18(6), 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061917