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Article

Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of Alien Myriophyllum aquaticum

by
Zhi Huang
1,†,
Mingkai Leng
1,†,
Xiaodong Wu
1,2,*,
Xuguang Ge
1,2,
Mengting Gong
1,
Haoran Liu
1,
Xing Wang
1,
Haoyue Li
1 and
Xin Mou
1
1
College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China
2
Huangshi Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution and Control, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Diversity 2025, 17(9), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090661
Submission received: 25 July 2025 / Revised: 18 September 2025 / Accepted: 19 September 2025 / Published: 21 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Plant Diversity, Conservation, and Restoration)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Myriophyllum aquaticum is an invasive plant that poses a threat to native plants and industries in China. Therefore, this study aimed to specifically investigate the effects of varying UV-B radiation intensities on the growth and physiological traits of M. aquaticum. We established three treatment groups: (1) a control group exposed to natural UV-B radiation (~20.0 μW·cm−2), (2) a +25% group exposed to UV-B irradiance increased by 25% (~25.0 μW·cm−2), and (3) a +50% group exposed to UV-B irradiance increased by 50% (~30.0 μW·cm−2). In the +50% group, the growth indices decreased but were still slightly higher than those in the control group, and the plants survived and maintained normal physiology throughout the experimental period. This suggests that M. aquaticum is tolerant of UV-B radiation. However, there may be a threshold beyond which negative effects are exacerbated. As the UV-B irradiance increased, the number of meristems and tillers, as well as the flavonoid content, increased, whereas the malondialdehyde (MDA) content initially decreased and then increased. Thus, M. aquaticum may respond to increased UV-B radiation stress by up-regulating the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids. This species adapts to environments with different levels of UV-B radiation by adjusting its morphological characteristics and physiological metabolism, thereby enabling successful invasion.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In recent years, the rapid increase in population and economic growth has led to the introduction of many exotic plant species into China. Some of these species have grown and reproduce naturally in their introduced habitats, steadily expanding their distribution within suitable environments because of the absence of natural enemies [1,2]. These species have become invasive, resulting in serious negative effects on the ecosystem structure and function [3,4]. When competing with native plants for limited resources, invasive plants can inhibit the growth of the latter—or even displace them—by means of allelopathy or other interference mechanisms [5]. This can affect the structure, function, and stability of plant communities [6], which has a substantial impact on local agricultural, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery production [7].
Continuous industrialization, coupled with the emission of large quantities of pollutants such as hydrofluorocarbons, has led to a decrease in stratospheric ozone and a subsequent increase in UV-B radiation at the Earth’s surface [8]. Many studies have shown that exposure to abnormal levels of UV-B radiation can lead to the gradual accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), metabolic disorders, and increased production of superoxide ions in plants. This can exacerbate membrane lipid peroxidation and damage the normal physiological functions of plants [9]. Enhanced UV-B radiation can drastically alter morphological indicators, such as plant height, leaf area, and dry weight [10,11]. Furthermore, the effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on plant morphology, growth, and development also include modifications to photosynthetic processes. In particular, it influences photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance, leading to stress-induced changes in growth rate, internode length, height, and other traits [12]. It can be assumed that the ability of invasive and native plants to repair and resist UV-B damage differs due to differences in their adaptation strategies and response mechanisms. Therefore, UV-B radiation may play a key role in plant invasion [13,14]. In addition to terrestrial ecosystems, UV-B radiation greatly affects aquatic ecosystems. High concentrations of dissolved and particulate matter can reduce UV-B transmission, but the degradation of dissolved organic carbon and uptake by microorganisms increase the depth of UV-B transmission [15]. Studies have shown that UV-B radiation can reach important ecological zones; for example, it can penetrate up to 2.17 m deep in lakes in the middle and lower Yangtze River [16]. Transmitted UV-B radiation affects aquatic plants and animals, and excessive exposure can cause mutations or death in aquatic organisms [17], leading to decreased aquatic biomass and affecting ecosystem stability [18].
Myriophyllum Aquaticum is a tropical species native to South America. Light and temperature are the main environmental factors affecting its growth and reproduction [19]. It has strong adaptability and is now distributed in Southeast Asia, Australia, Africa, North America, and Europe [20]. Biological invasion has been observed in areas with high UV-B irradiance. Thus, UV-B radiation may promote the spread of alien species with functional UV-B-responsive traits while preventing the spread of UV-B-sensitive plant species. In South America, the UV-B radiation is much higher than that in Asia [21]. Currently, there are relatively few studies on the environmental adaptability of M. aquaticum. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to explore the response of M. aquaticum to different UV-B radiation intensities using UV-B radiation simulation experiments.
We propose three hypotheses: (1) Moderate UV-B radiation (~25%) activates M. aquaticum’s photoprotective mechanisms (e.g., flavonoid content), thereby enhancing its resistance to UV-B exposure. (2) This study hypothesizes that M. aquaticum has a UV-B radiation tolerance range, and that the adverse effects of UV-B radiation on its growth and physiological traits will intensify significantly when the radiation exceeds this range. (3) As it is native to South America, where UV-B levels are high, M. aquaticum may adapt to UV-B changes by altering growth conditions such as plant height and RGR, as well as physiological conditions such as Chl-a and MDA, which may help it survive and reproduce in an environment with intense UV-B radiation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Design

The experiment was conducted in a polyethylene-film greenhouse (polyethylene film) located on the shoreline of Qingshan Lake, a typical urban lake in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in China (Figure 1). The greenhouse film remained uncovered during clear weather conditions, but the film was promptly deployed to prevent rainfall exposure during precipitation events, followed by immediate removal after rain cessation. During the experiment, the average high temperature in Huangshi was 34 °C, and the average low temperature was 23 °C. The experimental plants (M. aquaticum) grew well and showed relatively consistent growth. The initial height was approximately 15 cm. The plants were acclimatized to the growth conditions in the containers for 1 week. The substrate was obtained from the sediment of Castle Peak (Lake). A pure UV-B lamp (Nanjing Huaqiang Special Light Source Factory, China) was used as the source of the UV-B radiation. It had a power of 40 W, and the main wavelength peak was at 313 nm. The lamps were hung in parallel above the plants to supply UV-B radiation. The irradiance was controlled by adjusting the height of the lamps above the top of the plants and the UV lamps. Notably, polyethylene film around the lamps filtered out UV-C radiation at wavelengths below 290 nm. These films were replaced once every 2 weeks [22]. During the experimental period, the distance between the plants and the lamps was adjusted in a timely manner to maintain the stability of the irradiance according to plant growth. The intensity of the UV radiation was measured using a UV-B radiometer (Optoelectronic Instrumentation Factory, Beijing Normal University, China) at weekly intervals. We continuously administered UV-B radiation for 30 days (excluding cloudy and rainy days) with a treatment time of 8 h per day (8:00–16:00). The experiment included three groups: control group (natural UV-B radiation level in the Yellowstone area, ~20.0 μW·cm−2), low-intensity UV-B radiation (+25%) group (~25% increase in UV-B intensity compared with that of natural light, ~25.0 μW·cm−2), and high-intensity UV-B radiation (+50%) group (~50% increase in UV-B intensity compared with that of natural light, ~30.0 μW·cm−2). Each treatment was replicated three times (three buckets containing four pots each, with six M. aquaticum plants per pot). During the experiment, the area surrounding the experimental site was open and unobstructed and no other plants were present.

2.2. Indicator Measurement

The experimental UV-B irradiation cycle lasted 30 days. Growth indicators were determined every 10 days. Six plants were randomly selected from each treatment group, separated from the substrate, and rinsed with tap water to remove the adsorbed impurities from the plant surface. The plants were then dried, and their height, root length, number of stem nodes, node spacing, and other indicators were measured. The fresh weight and relative growth rate (RGR) were measured using an analytical balance. The RGR was calculated as follows:
R G R = ln W f W i D
where Wi and Wf are the fresh weights of the plants before and after the experiment, respectively, and D is the length of the experiment in days.
The flavonoid content was determined using the method described by Chu et al. [22]. The leaves were cut and mixed thoroughly before being weighed (0.1 g) and added to 10 mL of 80% ethanol. The mixture was then placed in a water bath at 55 °C for 30 min before being immediately cooled in an ice bath. The absorbance of the extract was measured at 334 nm at room temperature using 80% ethanol as a blank. The flavonoid content is expressed as the absorbance value per gram of fresh leaf weight, with the unit being OD334·g−1 FW [22,23].
Malondialdehyde (MDA) was determined using the thiobarbituric acid method. Using pure water as the blank, the absorbance values were measured at 450 nm, 532 nm, and 600 nm. The MDA content was calculated using the following formulas [24,25]:
A532 − A600 = 15,500 × C × L
C (μmol/L) = 6.45 (A532 − A600) − 0.56A450
where A450, A532, and A600 represent the absorbance values at wavelengths of 450 nm, 532 nm, and 600 nm, respectively, and L is the path length of the cuvette (cm). Based on the above formulas, the concentration of MDA in the plant extract solution was calculated and used to determine the content in the plant tissue.
Chlorophyll was extracted using ethanol and analyzed spectrophotometrically. Using 95% ethanol as the blank, absorbance was measured at wavelengths of 665 nm, 649 nm, and 470 nm. The chlorophyll a (Chl-a) content was calculated as follows [26,27,28]:
Chl-a = 13.95 × A665 − 6.88 × A649

2.3. Data Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using Excel and GraphPad Prism software (version 10.1.2). The effects of UV-B radiation at different growth stages on the growth and related physiological indices of Myriophyllum aquaticum at different growth stages were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA). Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05. Prior to analysis, all datasets were tested for normality, and data transformations were applied to datasets that failed to meet the assumption of a normal distribution. The map of the study area was generated using ArcGIS software (version 10.2).

3. Results

3.1. Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of M. aquaticum

3.1.1. Plant Height

The growth of M. aquaticum varied substantially depending on the intensity of the UV irradiation. On Day 10, the plant height (Figure 2) in the +25% and +50% treatment groups was 13% and 13% higher, respectively, than that in the control group. By Day 30, significant differences emerged among all three groups, with the +25% treatment group demonstrating significantly greater plant height than the other groups (p < 0.05). Specifically, the +25% treatment group showed 13% higher plant height than the control group and 7% higher plant height than the +50% treatment group.

3.1.2. Number of Stem Nodes and Internode Spacing

During the initial 20 days, stem node counts in M. aquaticum were significantly higher under enhanced UV-B exposure than in the control (p < 0.05) (Figure 3). This difference diminished over time. For morphological traits, internode spacing initially increased with UV-B irradiance, peaking at the +25% treatment group, then decreased under higher irradiance (+50% group).

3.1.3. Branching and Tillering

The branching and tillering capacities of M. aquaticum increased as the intensity of UV-B radiation increased, and this effect became more pronounced during the course of the experiment (Figure 4). The treatment group with a UV-B irradiance of +50% treatment group performed the best, with significantly higher branch numbers (14.0 ± 1.0) and tiller (6.3 ± 0.6) numbers then the control group (branches: 9.0 ± 0.0; tillering: 3.7 ± 0.7) (p < 0.05), and slightly higher numbers than the +25% treatment group (branches: 13.3 ± 0.6; tillers: 5.7 ± 0.7) (p > 0.05).

3.1.4. Root Length

At the end of the experiment, both sediment root length and number of adventitious roots increased with irradiance up to a peak, then decreased. The +25% UV-B group exhibited the best root development, with a sediment root length of 26.0 ± 0.9 cm and 24.2 ± 0.4 adventitious roots, values higher than those in other groups (Figure 5).

3.1.5. Fresh Weight and Relative Growth Rate

During the experiment, the fresh weight of M. aquaticum increased, whereas its response to enhanced UV-B irradiance showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. Specifically, the fresh weight in the +25% UV-B radiation treatment group was approximately 17.31 ± 0.04 g, which was higher than that in the control (13.65 ± 0.44 g) and +50% UV-B radiation (15.69 ± 1.03 g) groups (Figure 6). The trend in the RGR was similar to that in the plant height, with an initial increase followed by a decrease with increasing UV-B irradiance.

3.2. Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Physiological Indices of M. aquaticum

3.2.1. Chlorophyll a Content

The Chl-a content of M. aquaticum exhibited a biphasic response to increasing UV-B irradiance, which was characterized by an initial increase followed by a decrease. The +25% UV-B treatment group had the highest Chl-a levels, with final measurements representing 109% of the +50% group values and 106% of the control values (Figure 7). (Chlorophyll unit is mg/L FW)

3.2.2. Malondialdehyde Content

MDA content initially decreased with increasing irradiance, reaching a minimum at +25% UV-B exposure (p < 0.05 vs. other groups), and subsequently increased at +50% UV-B exposure (Figure 8). The +25% UV-B treatment group consistently demonstrated the lowest MDA levels across all sampling intervals.

3.2.3. Flavonoid Content

As the UV-B irradiance increased, the accumulation of flavonoids in the plants gradually increased (Figure 9). The +50% UV-B treatment group had the highest flavonoid levels, which were higher than those in the control and +25% UV-B treatment groups (p > 0.05).

4. Discussion

4.1. Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Morphological Characteristics and Biomass of M. aquaticum

In recent years, the increase in UV-B radiation due to ozone depletion has become a key issue in global change research [29]. Numerous studies have documented the adverse effects of UV-B radiation on plants [30]. Enhanced UV-B radiation influences plant morphology by reducing growth parameters such as height, stem thickness, leaf area, and biomass [31,32]. It can also alter gene expression in aquatic organisms, leading to mutations or mortality [33]. Sensitivity to elevated UV-B radiation varies among plant species [34]. Biomass, which reflects the integration of biochemical, physiological, and ecological processes in plants, is widely used as an indicator of UV-B radiation effects on plant growth [35]. The present study found that the fresh weight of M. aquaticum varied with increased UV-B irradiance. A similar pattern was reported by Chu et al. in Typha orientalis [22], and by Xi et al. in studies on M. aquaticum under exogenous ammonium stress involving photosynthetic pigments and stoichiometry [36]. Under external stress, the growth of M. aquaticum often changes nonlinearly with stress intensity [36]. In the +50% UV-B treatment, the reduction in growth may be attributed to accelerated initial stem elongation, which exposed more tissue to radiation and induced photoinhibition. prolonged high radiation exposure can cause severe damage and morphological alterations in M. aquaticum, consistent with findings by Wang (2015) [37]. Since plant biomass is predominantly allocated to apical tissues [38], damage to these parts under high irradiance can impair physiological function and restrict growth. This led to lower fresh weight in the +50% UV-B group compared to the +25% group.
During the experimental period, plant height, a key morphological indicator of plant growth dynamics, was higher in both the +25% and +50% UV-B radiation treatment groups than in the control group. At the end of the experiment, M. aquaticum plants in the +25% UV-B radiation treatment group were 13.6% taller than those in the control group and 7.6% taller than those in the +50% treatment group. This aligns with the experimental results for Jing 10531 and other wheat in a study on the response of 140 winter wheat varieties to UV-B radiation [39]. In the present study, M. aquaticum exhibited positive growth in response to UV-B radiation, which may be related to the effect of UV-B radiation on endogenous plant growth hormones [40]. However, further enhancement of the intensity of UV-B radiation resulted in lower plant heights in the +50% UV-B radiation treatment group than in the +25% group at the end of the experiment. This aligns with the results of Qian et al., which may be due to the inhibitory effects of high UV-B irradiance on plant growth, resulting in poorer performance in terms of plant height compared with that of plants subjected to lower UV-B irradiance [41]. This is similar to the reason for the lower fresh weight of the +50% UV-B radiation treatment group compared with that of the +25% group.
In the present study, the number of stem nodes in M. aquaticum was significantly higher in the groups treated with increased UV radiation than in the control group (p < 0.05). This phenomenon may reflect an important adaptive strategy for coping with radiation stress, in which the efficiency of light capture can be improved by increasing the number of branch nodes, thereby reducing the risk of damage to the apical meristem. This strategy aligns with the radiation adaptation mechanisms observed in aquatic plants, as reported by Wang et al. [42,43]. Simultaneously, changes in morphological parameters exhibited typical biphasic response characteristics. Specifically, the internode length and adventitious root lengths peaked under exposure to +25% UV-B radiation, but they decreased as the radiation level increased. The fresh weight of M. aquaticum showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with increasing UV irradiance. The pattern of change in RGR was similar to that in plant height and other indicators, generally showing a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with increasing UV irradiance. The RGR of M. aquaticum in the +25% UV-B radiation treatment group was approximately 90.40 ± 0.09 mg·g−1·d−1, which was higher than that of the other treatment groups. The patterns of the growth parameter changes were similar to those reported by Wang et al. [42]. In particular, we found that the continuous enhancement of branching ability and apparent contradiction between the initial increase and subsequent decrease in fresh weight may reflect a trade-off strategy of resource allocation; under strong radiation, plants prioritize reproductive structures (i.e., branching) over nutritional growth, which is consistent with the results of Hofmann et al. [44]. These findings provide new empirical evidence for understanding the phenotypic plasticity of aquatic plants. Further elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanisms is required, which can be achieved using transcriptomics.

4.2. Effects of UV-B Radiation on the Physiological Characteristics of M. aquaticum

Chlorophyll, the core pigment in photosynthesis, directly reflects the light energy capture efficiency and photosystem stability of plants [45]. Our results showed that the Chl-a content in M. aquaticum leaves varied with UV-B irradiance, initially increasing and then decreasing, which aligns with classical photoinhibition theory [46]. Although high UV-B radiation can reduce chlorophyll concentrations, our study also revealed that chronically low UV-B radiation impairs Chl-a accumulation in M. aquaticum. This complex response suggests a dual role for UV-B: at moderate levels, it may act as a signal triggering photoprotective pathways, while both deficiency and excess disrupt photosynthetic pigment homeostasis. This may be related to the high natural UV-B levels in its native South American habitat, indicating that some aquatic plants depend on moderate UV-B to maintain normal photosynthetic development. The Chl-a content in the +25% UV-B group was slightly higher than in other groups, indicating subtle physiological adjustments under intermediate radiation.
Exposure to UV-B radiation stimulates ROS production, which can initiate lipid and protein oxidation [47]. Due to their strong oxidative activity, ROS react non-specifically with biomolecules, including nucleic acids and metabolic intermediates [48], disrupting cellular redox homeostasis and causing oxidative stress that damages cellular structures and functions, such as loss of membrane integrity [49]. Flavonoids, which absorb UV-B, accumulate in the leaf epidermis and function as a natural sunscreen, filtering harmful radiation and protecting photosynthetic tissues and DNA. They serve a dual role: acting as a shield against UV-B and indirectly suppressing lipid peroxidation by scavenging ROS, thereby reducing MDA accumulation and alleviating oxidative stress [34]. However, under prolonged UV-B stress, rising ROS levels can deplete flavonoids, leading to increased MDA [50]. As a major end product of lipid peroxidation, MDA is a key indicator of oxidative damage [51]. Plants respond to enhanced UV-B by upregulating flavonoid biosynthesis, a known acclimation mechanism that improves oxidative stress tolerance [52]. Moreover, certain flavonoid aglycones (e.g., quercetin) exhibit strong antioxidant activity that directly neutralizes UV-induced ROS. This explains why MDA levels remained stable or decreased following significant flavonoid accumulation in this study. While the current study quantified total flavonoids, future research should use targeted metabolomics to identify specific components—such as individual flavonoids, flavonols, and anthocyanins—to better elucidate M. aquaticum’s UV adaptation strategies.
In this study, the flavonoid content of M. aquaticum leaves increased gradually with increasing UV irradiance, with the highest flavonoid content observed in the +50% UV-B radiation treatment group. These results are consistent with those of previous studies and further confirm the key role of flavonoids as important photoprotective substances in plant defense against UV-B radiation [53,54,55,56]. When exposed to high-intensity UV radiation, M. aquaticum responds by increasing the amount of flavonoids in its cells, which maintains cell membrane stability by removing excessive ROS, thereby reducing UV-B damage to the plant [56,57]. Additionally, we observed that the MDA content in the leaves of M. aquaticum increased with increasing UV-B irradiance during the early stages of the experiment. This pattern was the opposite of the trend observed for the Chl-a content, which decreased and then increased with increasing UV-B irradiance. Compared with the other two groups, the +25% UV-B radiation treatment group had the lowest MDA content, indicating that the increase in flavonoids inhibited the membrane lipid peroxidation reaction to a certain extent, reducing the production of MDA [58]. This result corroborates the pattern of change in Chl-a content. Our findings suggest that a moderate increase in UV-B radiation (+25%) is most beneficial for maintaining cell membrane stability and photosynthetic function in M. aquaticum. In comparison, the MDA content was higher in the +50% UV-B radiation treatment group than in the other two groups, which was consistent with the results of Tou et al. [59]. This suggests that M. aquaticum may experience severe oxidative stress under high-intensity UV irradiation. This would result in increased membrane lipid peroxidation and MDA production, possibly because the increase in flavonoids may not be sufficient to counteract the oxidative damage caused by UV-B radiation at very high intensities. This led to an increase in MDA content, damage to plant cells, and a decrease in Chl-a content, which was also responsible for the lower fresh weight and RGR in the +50% UV-B radiation treatment group compared with those in the +25% group. Therefore, we can infer that there is a threshold for the response of M. aquaticum to UV-B radiation. When the irradiance exceeds this threshold, the negative effects on M. aquaticum intensify. This was confirmed in a study on Hiercium pilosella [49]. The flavonoid content of M. aquaticum increased in response to enhanced UV-B radiation during the experimental period. This suggests that M. aquaticum can cope with increased UV-B radiation stress by up-regulating the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, and that the accumulation of flavonoids is inversely related to changes in MDA content [60]. This further verified the protective role of flavonoids in alleviating UV-B-induced oxidative stress.

4.3. Exploring the Invasiveness of M. aquaticum from the Perspective of UV-B Radiation

Although M. aquaticum is native to the Amazon River Basin in South America, it has now spread across Southeast Asia, Australia, Africa, North America, and Europe [61]. As an invasive species, M. aquaticum exhibits strong adaptability and competitiveness in aquatic ecosystems, with light and temperature being the primary environmental factors influencing its growth and reproduction [62]. In its native habitat, M. aquaticum is found in South America, where UV-B radiation levels are relatively high [21]. This species exhibits strong tolerance to UV-B radiation, which may significantly influence its geographical distribution and invasive potential. This was confirmed in a study on invasion by H. pilosella [63]. The morphological characteristics and biomass of plants result from the combined effects of their biochemical metabolism, physiological processes, and ecological factors during long-term environmental adaptation. These characteristics are commonly employed as key indicators to measure the impact of increased UV-B radiation on plant growth [35]. During the experiment, exposure to +25% UV-B radiation increased the height, internode length, root length, fresh weight, and RGR of M. aquaticum. By the end of the experiment, plants in the +25% UV-B radiation treatment group were significantly taller than those in the other treatment groups. When alien species encounter favorable environmental conditions and possess the characteristics needed to cope with new challenges, they can successfully colonize new areas [64]. A fundamental difference in UV-B radiation exists between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; the UV-B intensity is higher in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere [65]. Owing to the multiple effects of UV-B radiation on organisms, it can act as an environmental factor that links functional reactive traits to species emergence patterns [21]. Although it originated in an area with relatively high radiation levels, experimental results show that M. aquaticum can adapt well to environments with low radiation levels, which may explain why it is now found on all continents except Antarctica.
Furthermore, we found that M. aquaticum has a certain degree of tolerance to and adaptive mechanisms for UV-B radiation. During the experiment, the branching and tillering abilities of M. aquaticum generally increased with increasing UV-B irradiance, and this promoting effect became more pronounced as the experiment progressed. This phenomenon may reflect an important adaptive strategy for coping with radiation stress, in which the efficiency of light capture can be improved by increasing the number of branch nodes, thereby reducing the risk of damage to the apical meristem. Moderate UV-B radiation effectively stimulated lateral branch development and tillering in M. aquaticum plants, thereby enhancing its reproductive capacity and population density. This is consistent with the findings of Zhao et al. [66].
As a key protective response, the flavonoid content of M. aquaticum increased in response to increased UV-B radiation. Flavonoids likely act as UV-absorbing compounds and antioxidants, shielding the underlying tissues and scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by UV stress. Concurrently, the Chl-a content of M. aquaticum initially increased and then decreased. This biphasic response suggests an initial potential up-regulation of chlorophyll synthesis or photoprotective mechanisms under lower stress UV, followed by controlled degradation under higher UV-B intensity, possibly mediated by chlorophyllase activity or ROS-induced damage. The dynamic regulation of Chl-a synthesis and degradation represents a key mechanism through which M. aquaticum responds to UV-B radiation stress. By modulating chlorophyll levels and enhancing flavonoid-based protection, the plants can effectively reduce the accumulation of lipid peroxidation products in cell membranes, thereby maintaining normal physiological functions and alleviating UV-B-induced oxidative stress. These findings are consistent with those reported by Li et al. [62].
This adaptation, centered on flavonoid accumulation and chlorophyll metabolism regulation, may give M. aquaticum an advantage over native species in environments with increased UV-B radiation, thereby enhancing its ability to spread. This adaptive mechanism could enable M. aquaticum to survive and reproduce in such environments by mitigating cellular damage and sustaining essential processes such as photosynthesis. Based on the above analysis, we conclude that the invasive spread of M. aquaticum worldwide is driven primarily by its exceptional UV-B radiation adaptation and tolerance. This biological resilience manifests through morphological changes and biomass alterations and extends to sophisticated physiological regulation mechanisms. Investigating the invasion mechanisms of M. aquaticum from a UV-B radiation perspective serves two purposes: it enhances our understanding of its invasive strategies and provides a scientific foundation for developing effective containment measures.

5. Conclusions

We assessed the morphological and physiological responses of the invasive species M. aquaticum to three intensities of UV-B radiation. The data demonstrated a nonlinear growth response pattern with increasing irradiance, characterized by an initial enhancement followed by inhibition at a higher intensity.
The intensity of UV-B radiation had a significant effect on the growth of M. aquaticum. As the intensity of UV-B radiation increased, the height, number of stem nodes, node spacing, biomass, length of sediment roots, length of adventitious roots, and Chl-a concentration initially increased, followed by a decrease, while the numbers of branches and tillers, as well as the flavonoid content, increased. The MDA content initially decreased and then increased with increasing UV-B irradiance. Although M. aquaticum in the +50% UV-B group exhibited reduced growth metrics compared with those in the +25% group, all plants survived throughout the exposure period while maintaining physiological functionality. Considering the increase in surface UV radiation caused by climate change, this study provides a theoretical basis for predicting plant adaptation in wetland ecosystems and helps to explain the emergence of species in different UV-B radiation regions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.H. and M.L.; methodology, Z.H. and M.L.; software, X.W. (Xing Wang); validation, H.L. (Haoran Liu); formal analysis, M.G.; investigation, H.L. (Haoran Liu) and X.M.; resources, M.L. and Z.H.; data curation, M.G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.L. and Z.H.; writing—review and editing, X.W. (Xiaodong Wu) and H.L. (Haoyue Li); visualization, M.L. and Z.H.; supervision, H.L. (Haoyue Li) and X.M.; funding acquisition, X.W. (Xiaodong Wu) and X.G.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Open Foundation of Resource-exhausted City Transformation and Development Research Center (Hubei Normal University) (KF2024Y07), and the College Students’ Innovative Entrepreneurial Training Plan Program (202410513009).

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
MDAMalondialdehyde
ROSReactive oxygen species
RGRRelative growth rate
Chl-aChlorophyll a

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Figure 1. Study location and schematic diagram of the experiment.
Figure 1. Study location and schematic diagram of the experiment.
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Figure 2. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on plant height of Myriophyllum aquaticum. A, B, and C represent the same treatment group. Whether there are differences between different periods, a, b, and c represent the differences between different treatment groups at the same time (It means the same thing in the picture below).
Figure 2. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on plant height of Myriophyllum aquaticum. A, B, and C represent the same treatment group. Whether there are differences between different periods, a, b, and c represent the differences between different treatment groups at the same time (It means the same thing in the picture below).
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Figure 3. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) the number of stem nodes and (b) internode length in M. aquaticum.
Figure 3. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) the number of stem nodes and (b) internode length in M. aquaticum.
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Figure 4. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) number of branches and (b) number of tillers of M. aquaticum.
Figure 4. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) number of branches and (b) number of tillers of M. aquaticum.
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Figure 5. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) root length and (b) adventitious roots of M. aquaticum.
Figure 5. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) root length and (b) adventitious roots of M. aquaticum.
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Figure 6. Effects of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) the fresh weight and (b) relative growth rate (RGR) of M. aquaticum.
Figure 6. Effects of different UV-B radiation intensities on: (a) the fresh weight and (b) relative growth rate (RGR) of M. aquaticum.
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Figure 7. The effects of different UV-B radiation intensities on the chlorophyll a content of M. aquaticum.
Figure 7. The effects of different UV-B radiation intensities on the chlorophyll a content of M. aquaticum.
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Figure 8. The effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of M. aquaticum.
Figure 8. The effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of M. aquaticum.
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Figure 9. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on the flavonoid content of M. aquaticum. ab indicates that there were no significant differences between the +25% treatment group and the CK group, as well as between the +25% treatment group and the +50% treatment group.
Figure 9. Effect of different UV-B radiation intensities on the flavonoid content of M. aquaticum. ab indicates that there were no significant differences between the +25% treatment group and the CK group, as well as between the +25% treatment group and the +50% treatment group.
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Huang, Z.; Leng, M.; Wu, X.; Ge, X.; Gong, M.; Liu, H.; Wang, X.; Li, H.; Mou, X. Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of Alien Myriophyllum aquaticum. Diversity 2025, 17, 661. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090661

AMA Style

Huang Z, Leng M, Wu X, Ge X, Gong M, Liu H, Wang X, Li H, Mou X. Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of Alien Myriophyllum aquaticum. Diversity. 2025; 17(9):661. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090661

Chicago/Turabian Style

Huang, Zhi, Mingkai Leng, Xiaodong Wu, Xuguang Ge, Mengting Gong, Haoran Liu, Xing Wang, Haoyue Li, and Xin Mou. 2025. "Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of Alien Myriophyllum aquaticum" Diversity 17, no. 9: 661. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090661

APA Style

Huang, Z., Leng, M., Wu, X., Ge, X., Gong, M., Liu, H., Wang, X., Li, H., & Mou, X. (2025). Effect of UV-B Radiation on the Growth of Alien Myriophyllum aquaticum. Diversity, 17(9), 661. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090661

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