Next Article in Journal
Are There Any Land Use Dynamics in the Upper Bistrița Basin, Eastern Carpathians, Romania, in the Period 1990–2021?
Previous Article in Journal
Seagrass Blue Carbon Stock and Air–Sea CO2 Fluxes in the Karimunjawa Islands, Indonesia during Southeast Monsoon Season
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Diversity
Volume 15
Issue 9
10.3390/d15090979
diversity-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Orchid Diversity at Three Elevations in the Mountain Sandstone Plateaus of the Cordillera del CóndorEcuador

by
Leisberth Vélez-Abarca
1,2,3,
Marco M. Jiménez
2,3,4,
Elizabeth Ramírez-Iglesias
2,
Silvia Parra-Suarez
2,
Esteban Torracchi-Carrasco
5,* and
Ángel Benítez
3,*
1
Grupo Científico Calaway Dodson, Investigación y Conservación de Orquídeas del Ecuador, Quito 170510, Ecuador
2
Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Puyo 160101, Ecuador
3
Biodiversidad de Ecosistemas Tropicales-BIETROP, Herbario HUTPL, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, San Cayetano Alto s/n, Loja 1101608, Ecuador
4
Grupo de Investigación en Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Ingeniería en Agroindustria, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad de Las Américas, Vía a Nayón, Quito 170124, Ecuador
5
Carrera de Odontología & Centro de Investigación y Transferencia de Tecnología (CIITT), Universidad Católica de Cuenca, Cuenca 010101, Ecuador
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2023, 15(9), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15090979
Submission received: 14 July 2023 / Revised: 23 August 2023 / Accepted: 25 August 2023 / Published: 30 August 2023
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Orchids comprise one of the largest families of flowering plants and have important roles in the total biomass, water balance, and nutrient cycling of tropical ecosystems; however, they are also one of the most endangered plant taxa. Because their diversity is strongly coupled to environmental factors, we hypothesize that local elevation can affect the diversity of these organisms. The purpose of this research was to compare the orchid species diversity at 1200, 1400, and 1700 m of elevation, corresponding to a sandstone plateau of the Cordillera del Cóndor that hosts a great orchid diversity. For each elevation, three plots of 0.1 ha were established. Each plot was subdivided into 25 subplots, and 8 were randomly selected, wherein all orchid species were counted and identified. The results obtained revealed the existence of 119 species belonging to 54 genera and a total of 867 individuals. The greatest diversity of species was found at an elevation of 1700 with 63 species, followed by 1400 m with 52 species, with the least diversity at an elevation of 1200 m with 39 species. Orchid composition differed significantly among the three elevations related to more humidity at higher elevations (e.g., 1700 m). More importantly, twenty-one species were the best candidate indicators of environmental conditions (e.g., Maxillaria grayi, Elleanthus oliganthus, Maxillaria mapiriensis, Stelis pittieri, Stelis ortegae) in this region. We conclude that orchid communities in sandstone plateau forests in the Shagmi Range of the Cordillera del Cóndor are mainly limited by elevation.

1. Introduction

The family Orchidaceae constitutes one of the most evolved and largest families among higher plants due to its high degree of diversity and complexity in the formation of each species [1]; however, it is also one of the most endangered plant taxa [2], with a high proportion of threatened genera and species [3]. Orchids are one of the largest families of flowering plants, with more than 24,000–28,000 species with 800–1000 genera worldwide [4,5,6]. Following this pattern, Ecuador has four of the five recognized subfamilies of orchids, with a total of 4032 described species, of which 1714 are endemic, and another 400 are still in the process of study and description [7].
The Cordillera del Cóndor is located in the provinces of Zamora Chinchipe and Morona Santiago, in southeastern Ecuador. This mountain range is separated from the Andes by the lower basin of the Zamora River [8]. According to Schulenberg and Awbrey [9], this site has the greatest diversity of vascular plant species, including orchids [10,11,12,13,14]. For instance, in recent years, fieldwork conducted in the Ecuadorian side of the region allowed the description of new orchid species [15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. However, only a rapid assessment of the Alto Nangaritza Basin River flora registered 13 species of orchids [22]. As can be seen, and despite their great importance and diversity, most ecological studies have been carried out in montane forests [23,24,25], and few studies have focused on the Cordillera del Cóndor.
Local and regional factors (e.g., humidity, precipitation, temperature, and elevation) directly or indirectly determine the diversity and composition of orchids [2,23,24,25,26,27,28]. Orchids (epiphytes and terrestrial) are important components of tropical forests [29,30] and have important roles in the total biomass, water balance, and nutrient cycling of ecosystems [30,31]. Due to their ecological significance, orchids have been used for several years as indicators of environmental changes related to land use [32,33], forest disturbance [23,34], or the effects of environmental factors, such as elevation [35,36,37,38]. In this context, the main findings suggest a bell-shaped distribution of species richness with elevation [30,34,35,36,37,38]. Following this pattern for Ecuador, Küper et al. [39] showed a bell-shaped elevational pattern of orchid richness. However, other studies have found that orchid richness declined with elevation [40,41].
In this context, we conducted the first analysis of the effects of local elevation on orchid diversity in the Shagmi mountain range, which is part of the Cordillera del Cóndor Region that includes many environments with marked microclimatic changes. It should be noted that elevation is an important factor that directly influences other environmental variables, such as temperature and precipitation, and indirectly influences population variables, such as growth, mortality, and diversity. In addition, each elevation is distinguished by its own composition, diversity, and structure of plant communities [42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. Thus, we proposed the following hypotheses: (1) The composition, richness, and density of orchids exhibit variations at three different elevations. (2) Are orchid species suitable for use as indicators at varying elevations?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Our study was conducted on the Cordillera de Shagmi (3°38′4.38′′–3°45′4.88′′ S, 78°31′6.23′′–78°31′2.03′′ W), a mountain range on the slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor Region in Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador, which encompasses approximately 9000 m2 (Figure 1). The study area is mainly dominated by a succession of evergreen premontane and lower montane forests of the sandstone plateaus of the Cordillera del Cóndor [49]. The climate is warm and humid, and according to INAMHI [50], the mean annual temperature varies between 20 °C and 24 °C, and the average rainfall reaches 1828 mm per year.
The vegetation that includes forest communities is dominated by the following tree species: Dacryodes peruviana (Burseraceae), Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum (Sapotaceae) and Sciodaphyllum sp. (Araliaceae) and some outlier genera also reported in the Guyana Shield, such as Digomphia (Bignoniaceae), Everardia (Cyperaceae), Phainantha (Melastomataceae). One species is endemic to Ecuador, Pterzonium (Pteridaceae) and Perissocarpa (Ochnaceae) [51]. The soils are shallow with an approximate horizon of 15–20 cm before reaching the bedrock. They have a coloration that ranges from white to gray, sandy in texture, and very stony; also, they are very acidic, reaching a pH of 3.0 to 3.5 [52].

2.2. Plot Demarcation and Sampling

The experimental design corresponded to random sampling, where 3 plots of 0.1 ha each were established at 3 elevational zones from 1170 m to 1700 m a. s. l. (Figure 1), with an interval of 200 m [2,41]. Thus, we selected the lowest point and the highest point, and finally, an intermediate point to cover the different environments for orchid diversity. The first zone included from 1170 to 1250 m.a.s.l (red dot), the second zone included from 1400 to 1456 m.a.s.l (blue dot), and the third zone included from 1630 to 1700 m.a.s.l. (yellow dot). Each plot was divided into 25 subplots of 2 × 2 m, in which all the orchid species with terrestrial and epiphytic growth habits were counted and identified. Collected flowers were stored in a 10% glycerin solution, 30% water, and 60% alcohol, for preservation and subsequent identification. In the case of unidentified specimens, duplicate samples were collected, pressed, and sent to Herbario Amazónico (ECUAMZ!) for identification and storage. All the specimen collections were carried out under Ecuador’s Ministry of the Environment (permit N°: 037-2019-IC-FLO-FAU-DPAZCH-UPN-VS/MA).

2.3. Statistical Data

We calculated alpha diversity at each elevation by specific richness, Shannon and inverse Simpson diversity indices, and Margalef richness in all plots using Past statistical software [53]. To determine differences between orchid species richness, abundance, Shannon–Weaver and inverse Simpson diversity indices per plot at each elevation, we used one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) whenever the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were met (Shapiro–Wilk and Bartlett’s tests, p-value > 0.05), i.e., for orchid abundance. However, when data were not normally distributed (Shapiro–Wilk and Bartlett’s tests, p-value < 0.05), we used Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks, i.e., for orchid richness and Shannon–Weaver and inverse Simpson diversity indices.
For the analysis of similarity, the Jaccard index was applied. Additionally, the Importance Value Index (IVI) was analyzed for each species found. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was performed to detect the patterns of species composition in relation to elevation. To test whether the three elevations had significantly different compositions of orchid species and to determine the possible effects of elevation and plot variability, we performed a two-factor permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) [54]. The design included two factors: elevation (three levels, fixed factor) and plot (three levels, random factor nested within elevation), with eight sub-plots for each plot. The abundance data were log10 (x + 1)-transformed to account for contributions by both rare and abundant taxa. We used Bray–Curtis distance measure. To assess species similarity among the different elevations, we performed additional pairwise PERMANOVA tests. The analyses were performed with package ‘vegan’ [55] using R software. To determine which orchid species was associated with each elevation, in order to identify it as indicator species, we used indicator species analysis [56] using the IndVal function of the ‘labdsv’ package [57]. The indicator value ranged from 0 (one species was absent from one elevation) to 1 (one species occurred in all plots of one elevation and was absent from other plots).

3. Results

3.1. Alpha Diversity

A total of 119 species (Table A1), belonging to 46 genera of Orchidaceae, were found in the three evaluated elevations. The most diverse genera were Maxillaria, with 24 species; followed by Pleurothallis, with 12 species; Epidendrum and Stelis, with 7 species each; and Elleanthus, with 5 species (Figure 2 and Figure 3).
The greatest richness was found at an elevation of 1700 m.a.s.l., with 63 species; followed by 1400 m.a.s.l, with 52 species; while the richness at an elevation of 1200 m.a.s.l. was the least diverse, with 39 species. When looking at the life form, 78% of the orchids studied were epiphytic, 5% were terrestrial and 17% of species showed both life forms.
The plots of 1200 m.a.s.l. were the least diverse of all sites included in the study, as shown by the Shannon diversity index (H′ = 2.65) and Margalef richness (Dα = 4.54), followed by the one located at 1400 m.a.s.l., which showed a higher Shannon index (H′ = 2.86) and Margalef richness (Dα = 5.68). The plots of 1700 m.a.s.l. were the most diverse in terms of genera and species of the Orchidaceae family, with a Shannon index (H’ = 3.05) and Margalef richness (Dα = 5.76).
At plot level, orchid richness, abundance, and diversity (Shannon–Weaver and Inverse Simpson indices) were not different at each elevation (Figure 4). Kruskal–Wallis showed that richness (Hc = 0.94; p = 0.62), Shannon–Weaver (Hc = 1.62; p = 0.44) and Inverse Simpson (Hc = 2.62; p = 0.26) indices did not show significant differences.

3.2. Density

A total of 857 individuals were evaluated at the three elevations. The plots located at 1700 m.a.s.l. exhibited the highest number of individuals (n = 382), followed by the one located at 1400 m.a.s.l. (n = 248) and, finally, the plots at 1200 m.a.s.l., which contained the fewest numbers (n = 227) of individuals. The most abundant genera were Maxillaria (238 individuals), followed by Elleanthus (92 individuals), Stelis (74 individuals), and Pleurothallis and Epidendrum, with 60 and 40 individuals, respectively. Analysis of variance revealed that orchid abundance did not differ among the three elevations (F = 1.1; p = 0.33; Figure 4). On the other hand, the IVI calculation showed that Maxillaria grayi was the most ecologically important species (8.50%), followed by Maxillaria mapiriensis (6.59%). Both species were present at 1200 m.a.s.l. and 1400 m.a.s.l. The only species shared between the elevations was Elleanthus blatteus, which obtained an importance value index of IVI = 3.38%. Masdevallia brachyura was the species with the highest IVI (1, 49%) at an elevation of 1700 m and was not found at elevations of 1200 and 1400 m.

3.3. Beta Diversity

The Jaccard similarity index determined that elevations of 1200 and 1400 m.a.s.l. shared 21% of the species, followed by elevations of 1400 and 1700 m.a.s.l. (9.26% shared species), which is in contrast to the elevations of 1200–1700 m.a.s.l. (only 2% shared species) (Figure 5). The non-metric MDS ordination showed a clear separation between plots at the different elevation levels (Figure 5).
Multivariate statistical analyses showed that the orchid composition was structured according to the elevation (elevation and plot), and a large component of variation (25%) was associated with this factor (Table 1).
The subsequent pairwise test revealed significant differences in orchid composition between all three elevations. Thus, the dissimilarity between 1200 and 1400 ma.s.l. was 94.34% (p = 0.005); between 1200 and 1700 m.a.s.l., it was 98.49% (p = 0.001); and between 1400 and 1700 m.a.s.l., it was 96.84 (p = 0.039). Finally, analysis of indicator species determined 21 indicator species with 7 species for each elevation (Table 2).

4. Discussion

Our results suggest that elevation in tropical lowland rainforests in the Cordillera de Shagmi is responsible for variations in the species diversity and species composition of orchids. These forests are home to a high diversity of orchids (130 species): indeed, the richness was higher than the 90 species reported for neotropical forests at 1500–1550 m [58]. Thus, for Ecuador, ca. 50% of the species in the elevational zone with maximum epiphyte diversity at 1000–1500 m are orchids [59]. The orchid species present in the area were mostly epiphytic. Küper et al. [39] found a similar pattern in Neotropical montane epiphyte floras with special emphasis on the Ecuadorian Andes. Following this pattern, Kreft et al. [59] found that Orchidaceae is the most species-rich family in Western Amazonia (Yasuní, Ecuador, at 230 m). Finally, Ibisch et al. [60] found that orchids dominate the patterns in epiphyte diversity in Peru.
In our study, it was determined that 78% of the examined orchids were epiphytic, while only 5% were terrestrial. These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Mites et al. [61], who found that orchid diversity in the cloud mountain forest of Pululahua Reserve in Ecuador was largely dominated by epiphytic species (87.3%), with a smaller proportion of terrestrial orchids (10.9%). Similarly, Krömer et al. [62] reported the presence of 38 orchid species in the evergreen montane forest of Bolivia, with approximately 80% of them being epiphytic. Therefore, a possible explanation for the prevalence of epiphytic species compared to terrestrial species in forests located on steep slopes is associated with the instability of the forest ground due to frequent occurrences of landslides.
The most diverse genera were Maxillaria, with 25 species; followed by Pleurothallis, with 12 species; and 7 species for Epidendrum and Stelis. Similarly, Kersten and Silva [63] showed that Maxillaria (eight species), Epidendrum (six species) and Pleurothallis (five species) were the genera with the most species richness. Mejía and Pino [64] found that the following genera have the most species richness: Maxillaria, with 11 species; Epidendrum, with 5 species; and Pleurothallis, with 4 species). In the same line, the most abundant genera were Maxillaria, followed by Elleanthus, Epidendrum, Pleurothallis, and Stelis, which is consistent with a study carried out by Hurtado et al. [65] on an Amazonian tropical forest in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru. Thus, the Cordillera del Cóndor is characterized by a high diversity of these genera (Maxillaria, Epidendrum, Pleurothallis, and Stelis); however, a considerable number of other genera with potential species new to science [9] have been scarcely studied. For instance, among the species reported in the plots, it was possible to publish three new species of genera: Octomeria [25,66], one Phloeophila [67], and one Pleurothallis [68], as well as new records of Comparettia bennettii [69] for Ecuador. This is because there are no studies on the sandstone plateaus of the Cordillera de Shagmi. The only related study was the collection of 40 species of orchids during the scientific expedition to Cerro Machinaza in 1993, where 26 of them were possibly new to science [9].
Although, species richness, abundance and Shannon–Weaver and Inverse Simpson indices at the plot level did not change for the elevations in the Cordillera de Shagmi. The distribution pattern of total orchid species for each elevation in the Cordillera de Shagmi exhibited maximum values of diversity at an elevation of 1700 m, both in terms of richness and density. Similarly, Achayra et al. [36] found the maximum richness of orchids at 1600 m. Many authors have suggested that, as the altitudinal gradient increases, the diversity tends to decrease and higher values of richness can be found at intermediate elevations [70,71]. Therefore, we would have expected to find a greater diversity at an intermediate elevation of 1400 m.a.s.l. than at any other elevation. As previously shown by Schulenberg and Awbrey [9], elevations from 1500 to 1800 m, considered as intermediate, are characterized by having the greatest diversity and richness.
Other ecological parameters also differ with elevation, for instance, microclimatic factors (e.g., humidity). In fact, Zhang et al. [2] previously showed that water availability significantly influences the composition of orchid species. Following this pattern, Ding et al. [72] found that air humidity is the most important abiotic factor driving epiphyte diversity along a tropical elevational gradient. In the present study, the differences monitored between the site located at 1700 m.a.s.l. and the other two sites (1400 and 1200 m.a.s.l.) were mainly related to the abundance of more indicator species with high water demand, such as Elleanthus oliganthus, Chondroscaphe merana, Ophidion pleurothallopsis, Masdevallia brachyura and Lepanthes uxoria. These species drastically reduced their presence and abundance at low elevations, where indicators species of the genera Maxillaria and Epidendrum were abundant.
Altogether, our results show that the sites located at three different elevations in the Cordillera de Shagmi are floristically different in orchid diversity, which is consistent with previous studies in Ecuador [61]. On the other hand, this is possibly due to the characteristics of the area located at 1700 m and can be attributed to the mechanisms that develop with other plants, observing that orchids were associated with bryophytes, ferns, bromeliads; also, in the roots of orchids predominates the formation of symbiotic associations with fungi (mycorrhiza), as in other tropical forests [73]. But other factors, such as substrate stability, the texture and water storage capacity of bark [74], tree diameter [72], and temperature [36], may have important effects on the species diversity of epiphytic orchids, and soil factors (e.g., soil drainage, nitrogen, and pH) and light regimes are crucial for terrestrial orchids [25,75].

5. Conclusions

We conclude that elevation plays an important role in shaping orchid community composition in sandstone plateau forests in the Shagmi Range of the Cordillera del Cóndor. Thus, we found that at lower elevations exists a greater percentage of similarity, a characteristic that tends to vary as elevation increases. In addition, our results support the notion that orchids are ideal indicators of environmental changes (e.g., elevation), and due to this, the use of species of orchids as indicators can capture distinct changes in environmental variables. The protection of sandstone plateau forests in Cordillera del Cóndor is necessary to preserve the high diversity of the most endangered plant group, orchids, in tropical regions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.V.-A. and M.M.J.; methodology, L.V.-A. and M.M.J.; formal analysis, L.V.-A., M.M.J. and Á.B.; investigation, L.V.-A. and M.M.J.; resources, L.V.-A., M.M.J., E.R.-I. and S.P.-S.; data curation, L.V.-A., M.M.J., E.R.-I. and S.P.-S.; writing—original draft preparation, L.V.-A., M.M.J. and Á.B.; writing—review and editing, L.V.-A., M.M.J., E.T.-C. and Á.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

We thank Universidad Estatal Amazónica and Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja for promoting orchid research in Ecuador. Also, we thanks Universidad de Las Américas (UDLA) for funding orchid research in Ecuador (grant no.: AGR.LBR.22.03). Finally, we thank Universidad Católica de Cuenca for support open access article.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mark Wilson for helping with language corrections and other observations in this manuscript; Marco Monteros, Candida Mashendo, Viviana Mashendo and Nathaly Naichap for their help with this investigation; and the Ministerio del Ambiente (MAE) for granting the research permit (no.: 037-2019-IC-FLO-FAU-DPAZCH-UPN-VS/MA). The authors also acknowledge the anonymous reviewers and editor for helping with comments and corrections to this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Orchid species on the Cordillera de Shagmi, crest belonging to the Cordillera of Cóndor in the El Pangui canton, Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador.
Table A1. Orchid species on the Cordillera de Shagmi, crest belonging to the Cordillera of Cóndor in the El Pangui canton, Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador.
Species120014001700
Brachionidium ballatrix Luer y Hirtz002
Chondroscaphe merana (Dodson y Neudecker) Dressler0012
Cleistes moritzii (Rchb. f.) Garay y Dunst.220
Cryptarrhena lunata R. Br.004
Dichaea galeata Dodson005
Dichaea histrio Rchb. f.0010
Dichaea trulla Rchb. f.050
Dichaea venezuelensis Carnevali & I. Ramírez1000
Dracula rezequiana Luer y R. Hawley001
Dryadella aurea Luer y Hirtz026
Echinosepala lappiformis (A.H. Heller y L.O. Williams) Pridgeon y M.W. Chase010
Elleanthus blatteus Garay11114
Elleanthus discolor (Rchb. f. & Warsz.) Rchb. f.920
Elleanthus fractiflexus Schltr.01310
Elleanthus oliganthus (Poepp. & Endl.) Rchb. f.0024
Elleanthus hymenophorus (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f.080
Eloyella jostii Dodson y Dalström001
Epidendrum aff. nocturnum250
Epidendrum jasminosmun Hágsater y Dodson020
Epidendrum lanipes Lindl.004
Epidendrum moronense Dodson y Hágsater004
Epidendrum sp.1006
Epidendrum sp.21000
Epidendrum tridens Poepp. y Endl.070
Epilyna embreei Dodson0018
Erycina pusilla (L.) N.H. Williams M.W. Chase030
Eurystyles sp.0016
Gongora portentosa Rchb. f.001
Gongora scaphephorus Rchb. f. & Warsz.006
Gongora sp.002
Huntleya wallisii (Rchb. f.) Rolfe020
Lepanthes uxoria Luer y Hirtz0012
Lepanthes dictydion Luer y Hirtz030
Lepanthopsis floripecten (Rchb. f.) Ames032
Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl.220
Lycomormium fiskei Dulce0010
Masdevallia angulata Rchb. f.004
Masdevallia brachyura F. Lehm. y Kraenzl.005
Masdevallia Hirtzii Luer y Andreetta001
Masdevallia lintricula Königer005
Maxillaria thurstoniorum Dodson004
Maxillaria aurea (Poepp. & Endl.) L.O. Williams350
Maxillaria aurorae D.E. Benn. y Christenson100
Maxillaria buchtienii Schltr.700
Maxillaria burtonii D.E. Benn. y Christenson020
Maxillaria chicana Dodson100
Maxillaria chlorantha Lindl.004
Maxillaria discolor (G. Lodd. ex Lindl.) Rchb. f.040
Maxillaria disticha (Lindl.) C. Schweinf.008
Maxillaria fletcheriana J.G. Fowler200
Maxillaria foetida D.E. Benn. y Christenson007
Maxillaria grayi Dodson39100
Maxillaria longibracteata (Lindl.) Rchb. f.500
Maxillaria mapiriensis (Kraenzl.) L.O. Williams28140
Maxillaria nasuta Rchb. f.01116
Maxillaria notylioglossa Rchb. f.0108
Maxillaria pendens Pabst500
Maxillaria pendula (Poepp. & Endl.) C. Schweinf.004
Maxillaria porrecta Lindl.003
Maxillaria quitensis (Rchb. f.) C. Schweinf.0012
Maxillaria rufescens Lindl.021
Maxillaria villosa (Barb. Rodr.) Cogn.061
Maxillaria virguncula Rchb. f.009
Maxillaria xantholeuca Schltr.070
Microchillus sp.001
Miltoniopsis bismarkii Dodson y D.E. Benn.005
Mormodes rolfeana Tilo001
Mormolyca polyphylla Garay y M. Wirth018
Muscarella sp.070
Myoxanthus ceratothallis (Rchb. f.) Luer010
Myoxanthus georgei (Luer) Luer210
Myoxanthus sp.020
Octomeria panguiensis Vélez-Abarca, M.M. Jiménez & Baquero002
Octomeria candidae Vélez-Abarca, M.M. Jiménez & Baquero100
Otoglossum globuliferum (Kunth) N.H. Williams y M.W. Chase980
Ophidion pleurothallopsis (Kraenzl.) Luer0010
Pleurothallis acestrophylla Luer010
Pleurothallis erythrium Luer030
Pleurothallis adeleae Luer400
Pleurothallis cordata (Ruiz & Pav.) Lindl.318
Pleurothallis cordifolia Rchb. f. & Wagener100
Pleurothallis litotes Luer1302
Pleurothallis niveoglobula Luer002
Pleurothallis revoluta (Ruiz & Pav.) Garay027
Pleurothallis floribunda Poepp. y Endl.1430
Pleurothallis ruscifolia (Jacq.) R. Br.0150
Pleurothallis ariana-dayanarum Vélez-Abarca, M.M. Jiménez & D. Gut. del Pozo050
Pleurothallis valvola Luer y Hirtz040
Pleurothallis kashi-menkakarai Mash., Vélez-Abarca & M.M. Jiménez004
Polycycnis escobariana G. Gerlach200
Prosthechea grammatoglossa (Rchb. f.) W.E. Higgins0012
Prosthechea vespa (Vell.) W.E. Higgins110
Prosthechea venezuelana (Schltr.) W.E. Higgins200
Scaphyglottis punctulata (Rchb. f.) C. Schweinf.002
Scaphyglottis summersii L.O. Williams0012
Sievekingia cristata Garay001
Sigmatostalix picta Rchb. f.002
Sobralia fimbriata Poepp. & Endl.100
Sobralia fragrans Lindl.430
Sobralia powelli Schltr.100
Sobralia setigera Poepp. & Endl.220
Stanhopea anfracta Rolfe002
Stelis kefersteiniana (Rchb. f.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase802
Stelis imraei (Lindl.) Pridgeon & M.W.Chase.01019
Stelis maloi Luer002
Stelis sp1.0150
Stelis ortegae Luer & Hirtz8140
Stelis floribunda Kunth1320
Stelis sp2.0310
Stelis sp3.010
Telipogon sp.100
Trichosalpinx aff. dura240
Trichosalpinx memor (Rchb. f.) Luer010
Trichosalpinx dura (Lindl.) Luer001
Trigonidium grande Garay070
Vanilla sp.200
Xylobium pallidiflorum (Hook.) G. Nicholson004
Xylobium squalens (Lindl.) Lindl.009
Zootrophion hypodiscus (Rchb. f.) Luer060

References

  1. Sánchez Recuay, M.; Calderón Rodríguez, A. Evaluación preliminar de orquídeas en el Parque Nacional Cutervo, Cajamarca-Perú. Ecol. Apl. 2010, 9, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Zhang, S.-B.; Chen, W.-Y.; Huang, J.-L.; Bi, Y.-F.; Yang, X.-F. Orchid species richness along elevational and environmental gradients in Yunnan, China. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0142621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Swarts, N.D.; Dixon, K.W. Terrestrial orchid conservation in the age of extinction. Ann. Bot. 2009, 104, 543–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Dressler, R.L. Phylogeny and Classification of the Orchid Family; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1993; p. 314. [Google Scholar]
  5. Fay, M.F.; Chase, M.W. Orchid biology: From Linnaeus via Darwin to the 21st century. Ann. Bot. 2009, 104, 359–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Christenhusz, M.J.M.; Byng, J.W. The number of known plant species in the world and its annual increase. Phytotaxa 2016, 261, 201–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Endara, L.; Williams, N.; León-Yánez, S. Explorando los patrones de endemismo de las orquídeas ecuatorianas: Implicaciones para su conservacíon. In Proceedings of the X Congreso Latinoamericano de Botánica, La Serena, Chile, 4–10 October 2010. [Google Scholar]
  8. BirdLife. Important Bird Areas Factsheet. Cordillera del Cóndor. Ecuador. Available online: http://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/partnership/our-history (accessed on 18 February 2021).
  9. Schulenberg, T.S.; Awbrey, K. The Cordillera del Cóndor region of Ecuador and Perú: A biological assessment. In Rapid Assessment Papers; Conservation International: Washington, DC, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  10. Luer, C.A. Two new pleurothallids from the Cordillera del Condor. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull. 1989, 58, 133. [Google Scholar]
  11. Renner, S.S. A history of botanical exploration in Amazonian Ecuador, 1739–1988. Smithson. Contrib. Bot. 1993, 82, 1–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Teague, W. Collecting orchids for the sake of science. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull. 1989, 58, 126–132. [Google Scholar]
  13. Dodson, C.H. A new Maxillaria from Ecuador. Harvard Pap. Bot. 2003, 7, 437–438. [Google Scholar]
  14. Jost, L. New pleurothallids orchids from the Cordillera del Condor of Ecuador. Selbyana 2004, 25, 11. [Google Scholar]
  15. Doucette, A.; Portilla, J.; Cameron, K.M. Ten new taxa in the orchid subtribe Pleurothallidinae (Epidendroideae, Epidendreae) from Ecuador. Phytotaxa 2016, 257, 230–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Wilson, M.; Baquero, L.; Dupree, K.; Jiménez, M.M.; LeBlanc, C.M.; Merino, G.; Werner, J.D. Three new species of Pleurothallis (Orchidaceae: Pleurothallidinae) in subsection Macrophyllae-Fasciculatae from Northern South America. Lankesteriana 2016, 16, 349–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Hágsater Gartenberg, E.; Santiago Ayala, E. Icones Orchidacearum 16(1). The Genus Epidendrum. Part 12. “Species New & Old in Epidendrum”; Herbario AMO: Ciudad de México, México, 2018; pp. 1601–1667. [Google Scholar]
  18. Salazar, G.A.; Tobar, F.; Jiménez-Machorro, R.; Freire, E.; Peñafiel Cevallos, M. Sarcoglottis neillii (Orchidaceae: Spiranthinae), a new species from the Andean Tepui Region of Ecuador and Peru. Phytotaxa 2019, 427, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Baquero, L.E.; Donoso, J.J.; Jiménez, M.M. A new gold-colored Lepanthes (Pleurothallidinae: Orchidaceae) from Southeast Ecuador. Lankesteriana 2020, 20, 257–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Dalström, S.; Higgins, W. A new small-flowered Cyrtochilum species (Orchidaceae: Oncidiinae) from the Condor mountains in Ecuador. Lankesteriana 2020, 20, 159–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Vélez-Abarca, L.; Jiménez, M.M.; Baquero, L.E. Octomeria candidae (Orchidaceae: Pleurothallidinae), a new species from the Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador. Lankesteriana 2020, 20, 345–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jadán, O.; Aguirre, Z. Flora de los Tepuyes de la Cuenca Alta del Río Nangaritza, Cordillera del Cóndor. In Evaluación Ecológica Rápida de la Biodiversidad de los Tepuyes de la Cuenca Alta del Río Nangaritza, Cordillera del Cóndor; Conservación Internacional: Quito, Ecuador, 2011; pp. 41–48. [Google Scholar]
  23. Oswaldo, J.; Hugo, C.; Wilmer, T.; Ismael, P.; Wilson, Q.; Omar, C. Successional forests stages influence the composition and diversity of vascular epiphytes communities from Andean Montane Forests. Ecol. Indic. 2022, 143, 109366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Djordjević, V.; Tsiftsis, S. The Role of Ecological Factors in Distribution and Abundance of Terrestrial Orchids. In Orchids Phytochemistry, Biology and Horticulture; Reference Series in Phytochemistry; Mérillon, J.-M., Kodja, H., Eds.; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 3–72. [Google Scholar]
  25. Djordjević, V.; Tsiftsis, S.; Lakušić, D.; Jovanović, S.; Jakovljević, K.; Stevanović, V. Patterns of Distribution, Abundance and Composition of Forest Terrestrial Orchids. Biodivers. Conserv. 2020, 29, 4111–4134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Tsiftsis, S.; Štípková, Z.; Kindlmann, P. Role of Way of Life, Latitude, Elevation and Climate on the Richness and Distribution of Orchid Species. Biodivers. Conserv. 2019, 28, 75–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Štípková, Z.; Tsiftsis, S.; Kindlmann, P. Pollination Mechanisms Are Driving Orchid Distribution in Space. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Hrivnák, M.; Slezák, M.; Galvánek, D.; Vlčko, J.; Belanová, E.; Rízová, V.; Senko, D.; Hrivnák, R. Species Richness, Ecology, and Prediction of Orchids in Central Europe: Local-Scale Study. Diversity 2020, 12, 154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Hietz, P.; Buchberger, G.; Winkler, M. Effect of forest disturbance on abundance and distribution of epiphytic bromeliads and orchids. Ecotropica 2006, 12, 103–112. [Google Scholar]
  30. Gradstein, S.R. Epiphytes of tropical montane forests—Impact of deforestation and climate change. In The Tropical Mountain Forest. Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot; Gradstein, S.R., Homeier, J., Gansert, D., Eds.; University Press: Göttingen, Germany, 2008; pp. 51–65. [Google Scholar]
  31. Zhang, S.; Yang, Y.; Li, J.; Qin, J.; Zhang, W.; Huang, W.; Hu, H. Physiological diversity of orchids. Plant Divers. 2018, 40, 196–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Larrea, M.L.; Werner, F.A. Response of vascular epiphyte diversity to different land-use intensities in a neotropical montane wet forest. For. Ecol. Manag. 2010, 260, 1950–1955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Alzate-Q, N.F.; García-Franco, J.G.; Flores-Palacios, A.; Krömer, T.; Laborde, J. Influence of land use types on the composition and diversity of orchids and their phorophytes in cloud forest fragments. Flora 2019, 260, 151463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Nöske, N.M.; Hilt, N.; Werner, F.A.; Brehm, G.; Fiedler, K.; Sipman, H.J.; Gradstein, S.R. Disturbance effects on diversity of epiphytes and moths in a montane forest in Ecuador. Basic Appl. Ecol. 2008, 9, 4–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Krömer, T.; Kessler, M.; Robbert Gradstein, S.; Acebey, A. Diversity patterns of vascular epiphytes along an elevational gradient in the Andes. J. Biogeogr. 2005, 32, 1799–1809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Acharya, K.P.; Vetaas, O.R.; Birks, H.J.B. Orchid species richness along Himalayan elevational gradients. J. Biogeogr. 2011, 38, 1821–1833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Tian, H.; Xing, F. Elevational diversity patterns of orchids in Nanling National Nature Reserve, northern Guangdong Province. Biodivers. Sci. 2008, 16, 75–82. [Google Scholar]
  38. Djordjević, V.; Tsiftsis, S.; Kindlmann, P.; Stevanović, V. Orchid diversity along an altitudinal gradient in the central Balkans. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2022, 10, 929266. [Google Scholar]
  39. Küper, W.; Kreft, H.; Nieder, J.; Köster, N.; Barthlott, W. Large-scale diversity patterns of vascular epiphytes in Neotropical montane rain forests. J. Biogeogr. 2004, 31, 1477–1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Jacquemyn, H.; Micheneau, C.; Roberts, D.L.; Pailler, T. Elevational gradients of species diversity, breeding system and floral traits of orchid species on Réunion Island. J. Biogeogr. 2005, 32, 1751–1761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ai, Y.Y.; Liu, Q.; Hu, H.X.; Shen, T.; Mo, Y.X.; Wu, X.F.; Li, J.L.; Dossa, G.G.; Song, L. Terrestrial and epiphytic orchids exhibit different diversity and distribution patterns along an elevation gradient of Mt. Victoria, Myanmar. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2023, 42, e02408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Richter, M.; Diertl, K.H.; Emck, P.; Peters, T.; Beck, E. Reasons for an outstanding plant diversity in the tropical Andes of Southern Ecuador. Landsc. Online 2009, 12, 1–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Condit, R.; Pitman, N.; Leigh, E.G., Jr.; Chave, J.; Terborgh, J.; Foster, R.B.; Núñez, P.; Aguilar, S.; Valencia, R.; Villa, G.; et al. Beta-diversity in tropical forest trees. Science 2002, 295, 666–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Stephenson, N.L.; Mantgem, P.J. Forest turnover rates follow global and regional patterns of productivity: Patterns in forest turnover rates. Ecol. Lett. 2005, 8, 524–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Homeier, J.; Breckle, S.W.; Günter, S.; Rollenbeck, R.T.; Leuschner, C. Tree Diversity, Forest Structure and Productivity along Altitudinal and Topographical Gradients in a Species-Rich Ecuadorian Montane Rain Forest: Ecuadorian Montane Forest Diversity and Structure. Biotropica 2010, 42, 140–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Girardin, C.A.J.; Malhi, Y.; Aragao, L.E.O.C.; Mamani, M.; Huaraca Huasco, W.; Durand, L.; Feeley, K.J.; Rapp, J.; Silva-Espejo, J.E.; Silman, M.; et al. Net primary productivity allocation and cycling of carbon along a tropical forest elevational transect in the Peruvian Andes. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2010, 16, 3176–3192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Blundo, C.; Malizia, L.R.; Blake, J.G.; Brown, A.D. Tree species distribution in Andean forests: Influence of regional and local factors. J. Trop. Ecol. 2012, 28, 83–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Anderson-Teixeira, K.J.; Miller, A.D.; Mohan, J.E.; Hudiburg, T.W.; Duval, B.D.; DeLucia, E.H. Altered dynamics of forest recovery under a changing climate. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2013, 19, 2001–2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. Sistema de Clasificación de los Ecosistemas del Ecuador Continental; Subsecretaría de Patrimonio Natural: Quito, Ecuador, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  50. INAMHI. Servicios Meteorológicos. 2019. Available online: http://www.serviciometeorologico.gob.ec/ (accessed on 18 February 2021).
  51. Neill, D. Inventario Botánico de la Región de la Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador y Perú: Actividades y Resultados Científicos del Proyecto 2004–2007; Missouri Botanical Garden: Saint Louis, MO, USA, 2007; p. 47. Available online: http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/ecuador/cordillera/pdf/EntireSpanishReport.pdf (accessed on 18 February 2021).
  52. Stadtmüller, T. Los Bosques Nublados en el Trópico Húmedo: Distribución e importancia hidrológica. In Curso Corto de Bases Hidrológicas para el Manejo de Cuencas; CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Educación): Cartago, Costa Rica, 1987. [Google Scholar]
  53. Hammer, Ø.D. Past: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and Data Analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica, IV, 1–9. 2001. Available online: https://palaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/past/past.pdf (accessed on 25 October 2019).
  54. Anderson, M.J.; Gorley, R.N.; Clarke, K.R. PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: Guide to Software and Statistical Methods; PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  55. Oksanen, J.; Blanchet, G.; Friendly, M.; Kindt, R.; Legendre, P.; McGlinn, D.; Minchin, P.; O’Hara, R.; Simpson, G.; Solymos, P.; et al. Package ‘Vegan’: Community Ecology Package Version 2.5-7; The Comprehensive R Archive Network: Vienna, Austria, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  56. Dufrêne, M.; Legendre, P. Species assemblages and indicator species: The need for a flexible asymmetrical approach. Ecol. Monogr. 1997, 67, 345–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Roberts, D.W. Package: “Labdsv”: Ordination and Multivariate Analysis for Ecology Package Version 2.0-1; The Comprehensive R Archive Network: Vienna, Austria, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  58. Ingram, S.W.; Ferrel-Ingram, K.; Nadkarni, N.M. Floristic composition of vascular epiphytes in a Neotropical cloud forest, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Selbyana 1996, 17, 88–103. [Google Scholar]
  59. Kreft, H.; Köster, N.; Küper, W.; Nieder, J.; Barthlott, W. Diversity and biogeography of vascular epiphytes in Western Amazonia, Yasuní, Ecuador. J. Biogeogr. 2004, 31, 1463–1476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Ibisch, P.; Boegner, A.; Nieder, J.; Barthlott, W. How diverse are neotropical epiphytes? An analysis based on the ‘Catalogue of the flowering plants and gymnosperms of Peru’. Ecotropica 1996, 2, 13–28. [Google Scholar]
  61. Mites, M.; García-Mozo, H.; Galán, C.; Oña, E. Analysis of the Orchidaceae Diversity in the Pululahua Reserve, Ecuador: Opportunities and Constraints as Regards the Biodiversity Conservation of the Cloud Mountain Forest. Plants 2022, 11, 698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Krömer, T.; Gradstein, S.R.; Acebey, A. Diversidad y ecología de epífitas vasculares en bosques montanos primarios y secundarios de Bolivia. Ecol. Boliv. 2007, 42, 23–33. [Google Scholar]
  63. Kersten, R.A.; Silva, S.M. The floristic compositions of vascular epiphytes of a seasonally inundated forest on the coastal plain of Ilha do Mel Island, Brazil. Rev. Biol. Trop. 2006, 54, 935–942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Mejía, H.; Pino, N. Diversidad de orquídeas epífitas en un bosque húmedo tropical (bh-t) del departamento del Chocó, Colombia. Acta Biol. Colomb. 2010, 15, 37–46. [Google Scholar]
  65. Hurtado Alza, H.A.; Orozco Ávila, J.; Pérez Betancur, J.F. Caracterización y distribución vertical de epífitas vasculares -orquídeas y bromelias- y hospederos en ecosistema de selva en sur de Perú. Rev. Investig. Agrar. Ambient. 2017, 8, 91–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Vélez-Abarca, L.; Jiménez, M.M.; Baquero, L.E. Two new autogamous species of Octomeria (Orchidaceae: Pleurothallidinae) from the Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador. Lankesteriana 2021, 21, 33–44. [Google Scholar]
  67. Jiménez, M.M.; Vélez-Abarca, L.; Baquero, L.E.; Naranjo, C. A taxonomic revision of genus Phloeophila (Orchidaceae, Pleurothallidinae) in Ecuador. Plant Fungal Syst. 2021, 66, 37–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Jimenez, M.M.; Ocupa Horna, L.; Vélez-Abarca, L. A new species of Pleurothallis (Orchidaceae: Pleurothallidinae) from Zamora in the Province of Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador. Phytotaxa 2021, 518, 79–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Jiménez, M.M.; Ocupa Horna, L.; Vélez-Abarca, L. Comparettia bennettii (Orchidaceae: Oncidiinae), a new record for Ecuador. Lankesteriana 2020, 20, 353–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Rahbek, C. The elevational gradient of species richness: A uniform pattern. Ecography 1995, 18, 200–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Sanders, N.J. Elevational gradients in ant species richness: Area, geometry, and Rapoport’s rule. Ecography 2002, 25, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Ding, Y.; Liu, G.; Zang, R.; Zhang, J.; Lu, X.; Huang, J. Distribution of vascular epiphytes along a tropical elevational gradient: Disentangling abiotic and biotic determinants. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Herrera, P.; Suárez, J.P.; Sánchez-Rodríguez, A.; Molina, M.C.; Prieto, M.; Méndez, M. Many broadly-shared mycobionts characterize mycorrhizal interactions of two coexisting epiphytic orchids in a high elevation tropical forest. Fungal Ecol. 2019, 39, 26–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Zarate-García, A.M.; Noguera-Savelli, E.; Andrade-Canto, S.B.; Zavaleta-Mancera, H.A.; Gauthier, A.; Alatorre-Cobos, F. Bark water storage capacity influences epiphytic orchid preference for host trees. Am. J. Bot. 2020, 107, 726–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Rocha, F.; Waechter, J. Ecological distribution of terrestrial orchids in a south Brazilian Atlantic region. Nord. J. Bot. 2010, 28, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Diversity 15 00979 g001
Figure 1. Points of sampling on the Cordillera de Shagmi, crest belonging to the Cordillera del Cóndor in the El Pangui canton, Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador. The first zone included from 1170 to 1250 m.a.s.l (red dot), the second zone included from 1400 to 1456 m.a.s.l (blue dot), and the third zone included from 1630 to 1700 m.a.s.l. (yellow dot).
Figure 1. Points of sampling on the Cordillera de Shagmi, crest belonging to the Cordillera del Cóndor in the El Pangui canton, Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador. The first zone included from 1170 to 1250 m.a.s.l (red dot), the second zone included from 1400 to 1456 m.a.s.l (blue dot), and the third zone included from 1630 to 1700 m.a.s.l. (yellow dot).
Diversity 15 00979 g001
Diversity 15 00979 g002
Figure 2. Most representative species in the Cordillera de Shagmi. (A) Maxillaria grayi, (B) Maxillaria mapiriensis, (C) Stelis ortegae, (D) Maxillaria pendens, (E) Octomeria candidae, (F) Pleurothallis valvola.
Figure 2. Most representative species in the Cordillera de Shagmi. (A) Maxillaria grayi, (B) Maxillaria mapiriensis, (C) Stelis ortegae, (D) Maxillaria pendens, (E) Octomeria candidae, (F) Pleurothallis valvola.
Diversity 15 00979 g002
Diversity 15 00979 g003
Figure 3. Most representative genera of orchids in the Cordillera de Shagmi.
Figure 3. Most representative genera of orchids in the Cordillera de Shagmi.
Diversity 15 00979 g003
Diversity 15 00979 g004
Figure 4. Box plot of richness (A), abundance (B), Shannon–Weaver index (C) and Inverse Simpson index (D) of orchids with maximum, minimum, and median values at plot level.
Figure 4. Box plot of richness (A), abundance (B), Shannon–Weaver index (C) and Inverse Simpson index (D) of orchids with maximum, minimum, and median values at plot level.
Diversity 15 00979 g004
Diversity 15 00979 g005
Figure 5. MDS ordination plot for species orchid composition of the samples (plots) from different elevations.
Figure 5. MDS ordination plot for species orchid composition of the samples (plots) from different elevations.
Diversity 15 00979 g005
Table 1. Two-factor PERMANOVA analysis of species composition by elevation and plot.
Table 1. Two-factor PERMANOVA analysis of species composition by elevation and plot.
FactordfMSPseudo-FpCV (%)
Elevation220,9902.84160.00525.155
Plot (elevation)67369.62.07560.00123.033
Error563550.5 59.586
Table 2. Orchid species with statistically significant values of indication for each elevation. p-values < 0.05 are considered significant.
Table 2. Orchid species with statistically significant values of indication for each elevation. p-values < 0.05 are considered significant.
SpeciesElevationIndicator Valuep-Value
Maxillaria grayi Dodson120063.20.0002
Elleanthus oliganthus (Poepp. & Endl.) Rchb. f.170041.70.0002
Maxillaria mapiriensis (Kraenzl.) L.O. Williams120035.20.0018
Stelis pittieri (Schltr.) Rojas-Alv. & Karremans120033.80.0016
Stelis ortegae Luer & Hirtz140033.30.0006
Euristyles sp.1700250.0088
Epidendrum sp.120023.50.006
Stelis imraei (Lindl.) Pridgeon M.W. Chase170021.80.0408
Maxillaria aurea (Poepp. & Endl.) L.O. Williams140020.80.0102
Maxillaria aurorae D.E. Benn. & Christenson140020.80.0102
Maxillaria villosa (Barb. Rodr.) Cogn.140020.80.0156
Chondroscaphe merana (Dodson & Neudecker) Dressler170020.80.0186
Ophidion pleurothallopsis (Kraenzl.) Luer170020.80.0182
Dichaea venezuelensis Carnevali & I. Ramírez120017.60.0152
Maxillaria buchtienii Schltr. 120017.60.0132
Elleanthus hymenophorus (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f.140016.70.0356
Epidendrum tridens Poepp. & Endl.140016,70.0372
Trichosalpinx aff. dura140016.70.0378
Masdevallia brachyura F. Lehm. & Kraenzl.170016.70.0348
Lepanthes uxoria Luer & Hirtz170016.70.0354
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Vélez-Abarca, L.; Jiménez, M.M.; Ramírez-Iglesias, E.; Parra-Suarez, S.; Torracchi-Carrasco, E.; Benítez, Á. Orchid Diversity at Three Elevations in the Mountain Sandstone Plateaus of the Cordillera del CóndorEcuador. Diversity 2023, 15, 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15090979

AMA Style

Vélez-Abarca L, Jiménez MM, Ramírez-Iglesias E, Parra-Suarez S, Torracchi-Carrasco E, Benítez Á. Orchid Diversity at Three Elevations in the Mountain Sandstone Plateaus of the Cordillera del CóndorEcuador. Diversity. 2023; 15(9):979. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15090979

Chicago/Turabian Style

Vélez-Abarca, Leisberth, Marco M. Jiménez, Elizabeth Ramírez-Iglesias, Silvia Parra-Suarez, Esteban Torracchi-Carrasco, and Ángel Benítez. 2023. "Orchid Diversity at Three Elevations in the Mountain Sandstone Plateaus of the Cordillera del CóndorEcuador" Diversity 15, no. 9: 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15090979

APA Style

Vélez-Abarca, L., Jiménez, M. M., Ramírez-Iglesias, E., Parra-Suarez, S., Torracchi-Carrasco, E., & Benítez, Á. (2023). Orchid Diversity at Three Elevations in the Mountain Sandstone Plateaus of the Cordillera del CóndorEcuador. Diversity, 15(9), 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15090979

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop