Next Article in Journal
Limnological Characteristics and Diatom Dominants in Lakes of Northeastern Poland
Next Article in Special Issue
Secondary Serpentine Forests of Poland as a Refuge for Vascular Flora
Previous Article in Journal
Effects of Temperature and pH on the Egg Production and Hatching Success of a Common Korean Copepod
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Diversity
Volume 12
Issue 10
10.3390/d12100373
diversity-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Harvesting Criteria Application as a Technical and Financial Alternative for Management of Degraded Tropical Forests: A Case Study from Brazilian Amazon

by
Marco A. Siviero
1,
Ademir R. Ruschel
2,
Jorge A. G. Yared
1,
Osmar J. R. de Aguiar
3,
Paulo C. G. Pereira
4,5,
Sabrina B. Vieira
1 and
Agust Sales
1,5,*
1
Grupo Arboris, Department of Research and Innovation, Dom Eliseu 68633-000, PA, Brazil
2
Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Eastern Amazon Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation P.O. Box 48, Belém 66095-100, PA, Brazil
3
Universidade do Estado do Pará, Center of Natural Sciences and Technology, Paragominas 66095-015, PA, Brazil
4
Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Department of Forest Engineering Campus Paragominas, Paragominas 68625-970, PA, Brazil
5
Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Department of Forest Engineering, Viçosa 36570-000, MG, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2020, 12(10), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100373
Submission received: 1 July 2020 / Revised: 21 August 2020 / Accepted: 5 September 2020 / Published: 27 September 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity of Secondary Forests and Their Importance in Nature Conservation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This article addresses a case study on the application of criteria for harvesting, aiming at restoration and profitability in a degraded tropical forest in the Amazon. The objective is to provide technical and economic information to promote a truly sustainable silvicultural management system in forests with this profile and turn them into a desirable financial asset for conservation and social development. In the forest census, 85.907 trees ha−1 (100.8566 m3 ha−1) were inventoried with diameter at breast height (dbh) ≥ 25 cm, belonging to 106 commercial species. When applying the harvest criteria, 19.923 trees ha−1 (29.99 m3 ha−1), referring to 53 species, were destined for harvest. Some trees were selected by more than one criterion, totalizing 17.985 trees ha−1 by density, 1.831 trees ha−1 by compromised health, 0.212 trees ha−1 by maximum dbh, 18.933 trees ha−1 by minimum dbh, 1.385 trees ha−1 by tree stem (quality 3), and 0.080 trees ha−1 by species conservation. In all scenarios, the application of criteria for harvesting proved to be profitable with excellent cost–benefit ratios. The selection of trees with a minimum cutting diameter of 25 cm in shorter cycles tends to allow the promotion of new commercial species. The set of actions presented has the potential to favor the maintenance of biodiversity and expansion of low-density populations, health and the potential increment of the forest productivity. In addition, it is more feasible for the supply of forest products in a shorter time than provided for in Brazilian regulations; however, they must respect the specificities of the species and also of the site.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The management of natural forests seeks to conserve forest resources and to perpetuate forest production with sustainable feedstock for industry [1,2,3]. However, discussions show the confrontation and difficulties in establishing rational parameters that enable environmental, social, and economic interests in the use of natural forests [4,5,6]. Studies in the region show mainly the ecological character of management through floristic composition, diversity of tree species, and growth dynamics, encouraging managers to justify the management of species outside the standards prescribed in the regulations that guide such activity [7,8,9,10]. In this context, it has been a challenge to reconcile economic interests with the maintenance of natural forests [11,12].
Through the last decades, nascent knowledge about the renewable potential of forest resources and the deforestation increase in the Amazon have encouraged Brazilian authorities to take preventive measures. In Brazil, several initiatives were established to conserve the Amazon rainforest: (a) creation of a legal reserve area for the sustainable use of 50% of the area covered with native vegetation on the property [12] and later changed to 80% [13]; (b) establishment of the minimum diameter cutting rule (MDC) for harvesting in natural forests, first MDC ≥ 45 cm, afterward MDC ≥ 50 cm; (c) gap of 25 to 35 years between harvests [14,15]; and (d) Law on Environmental Crimes, nº 9605 of 1998 [16].
The Brazilian Forest Code defines the sustainable forest management in a broad way, while the specific rules establish homogeneous and rigid criteria for the management of all types of forests [13,14,15]. In this aspect, forests are managed as if they were similar or in the same stage of development or anthropization. However, forests in the Amazon have a diversity of 6727 tree species [17], with different floristic composition, diametric structure, growth, life cycle, and adaptation [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25].
Intensely anthropized forests are a type of vegetation that corresponds to approximately 4.5 million hectares in the Amazon, according to the monitoring of the DEGRAD Project from 2006 to 2016 [26]. If managed rationally, those forests could present perennial sources to supply human needs, considering that forest resources, especially wood, are renewable goods [27]. However, the current management rules limit forestry activity. Rules encourage producers to join agribusiness, converting their forest areas into areas intended for agriculture or animal husbandry [28,29]. These restrictions increase the number of areas with agricultural and animal production, since the legal and technical difficulties in conducting the productive restoration of degraded forests discourage producers from investing.
In this context, Brazilian regulations must supplement and promote the management of different types of forest formations and not impose limiting measures to prevent those forests from being rationally used. The adoption of a technically adequate silvicultural management system can significantly contribute to forest management, respecting the ecosystem’s sustaining mechanisms and considering cumulative or alternative use of multiple species [13,30].
Research institutions and forestry companies concerned with the maintenance of natural forests began to invest in research that sought to make conservation and production aspects viable. Recently, advances have been made in the knowledge of anthropized forests with the use of new species, the technology for small-scale wood processing, the enrichment of forest clearings that had been intensively exploited, with fast-growing species, and the conduction of regeneration species that are interesting to the market [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35]. Studies with this focus aim to enable ecological, productive, and economic management. However, there is still no management proposal that makes forests’ productive restoration environmentally and financially feasible.
There is no doubt about the importance of studying sustainable means of production for tropical forests, especially for the Amazon rainforest. This article addresses a case study on the application of criteria for harvesting, aiming at environmental restoration and profitability in a degraded tropical forest in the Amazon. The objective is to provide technical and economic information to promote a truly sustainable silvicultural management system in forests with this profile and turn them into a desirable financial asset for conservation.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study Area

Shet Farm, managed by Grupo Arboris, is located in the municipality of Dom Eliseu, state of Pará, Brazil (altitude 320 m, 4°30′48″ S and 47°39′36″ W). The forest management is carried out in the Legal Reserve area (535.6 ha), subdivided into seven working units (UT) (Figure 1). This study is part of the SubBosque Project, registered by the Innovation Network of the logging forest production chain to promote the sustainable development of the State of Pará-SubBosque Forest Biomass Network (Embrapa Project SEG Code 02.10.00.001.00.02).
The climate in the region is Aw (Köpen). Tropical climate with summer rains and average annual rainfall of 2500 mm [36,37]. The average annual temperature is 25 °C [38]. The vegetation type of the municipality is dense submontane ombrophylous forest with emerging canopy [39]. The predominant soils are dystrophic yellow latosol and dystrophic red-yellow argisol [40].
Shet Farm is represented by a degraded natural forest, which is a characteristic of the region of the deforestation arc in the Amazon [41]. Such forest was degraded due to illegal logging activity that took place between the 70 s and 90 s, with no information on the volume of extracted wood. The first legal logging activity in the area occurred in 1993 and 1994, allowed by the Brazilian forestry authorities, with an average harvest volume of 65 m3 ha−1. The current regulation that prescribes a maximum harvest of 30 m3 ha−1 for the Amazon rainforest began only in 2006 [14]. Enrichment planting was carried out sowing paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum) in the clearings formed by logging activity between 1993 and 1994 [33].
A forest inventory was carried out in 2008, in which all trees with the diameter at breast height (dbh, the diameter at 1.3 m in height) ≥ 25 cm were evaluated. The methodology proposed by [42] was used to perform the forest census. The following procedures were performed: botanical identification and vines cut off; attachment of a numbered label at the base of the tree trunk; dbh measurement; visual estimate of commercial height; classification regarding shaft quality (shaft 1—straight and cylindrical shaft; shaft 2—slightly tortuous and/or ribbed; shaft 3—crooked, strongly ribbed or forked); and health (rot, senescence, broken, dead, and/or fallen tree top).
The census quantified 46,010 trees and 106 species divided into three market value groups that were defined by the company. For the groups 1, 2, and 3, 13, 41, and 52 species were included, respectively. The trees were classified as “for harvest” or “remaining” (next harvest). For harvesting resulted in a total of 10,671 trees of 53 species, with 13 m average height, 37 cm average dbh, 16,067.53 m3 volume, and production for harvest of 29.99 m3 ha−1 (Table 1).

2.2. Harvesting Criteria

According to Brazilian regulations for harvesting in natural forests, only trees with dbh ≥ 50 cm can be harvested [14]. To support this research, an authorization for wood extraction was issued by the Pará State Department of Environment and Sustainability (SEMAS-PA) to harvest trees with dbh ≥ 25 cm.
The harvesting criteria were established based on the harvest history of the area, considering trees’ silvicultural conditions and the ecological behavior of the species. The criteria were applied together or separately to select the trees. With these parameters, the following criteria were defined for the harvest, in this order:
Density: tree harvest of species with higher density in the management area, aiming at the conservation of low-density species and the maintenance of biodiversity. The density was obtained using the equation [43]:
D a = n i A
where D a absolute density; n i = number of inventoried trees of the i-th species; and A = total sampled area, in hectare.
Health: harvest of trees identified with rot, senescence, broken top, signs of disease, or death were selected for harvest. Traditionally, trees with compromised health are not selected for harvest. However, the permanence of these trees influences negatively the quality of the future forest as they are more susceptible to pests and diseases, facilitating their proliferation. Furthermore, trees in these conditions use growth resources (space, light, water, and nutrients) that could be made available for healthy and productive trees. In general, trees with compromised health have a reduced life cycle.
Maximum dbh (>100 cm): harvesting trees with dbh > 100 cm. This criterion aims to increase the population of trees with smaller diameters. The harvest of trees with larger diameters helps to make the future industrial plant suitable for a larger number of trees of smaller diameters compatible.
Minimum dbh (≥25 and <50 cm): harvesting trees with dbh (≥25 and <50 cm) below the one provided in Brazilian regulations was performed. It includes species that, due to biological characteristics, do not reach the minimum dbh recommended by law in the industrial production process.
Tree stem: harvesting trees with tree stem type 3 for the maintenance of trees with tree stem types 1 and 2.
Conservation: all inventoried trees of low-density species (≤0.15 tree ha−1) were maintained for seed production, natural regeneration, and species diversity maintainance. On the other hand, the species A. lecointei, C. odorata, C. goeldiana, Copaifera sp., H. courbaril, H. petraeum, H. serratifolius, and M. elata that had been pressured in previous harvests, regardless of density, were then selected as remaining. However, the trees of these species classified by the aforementioned criteria (health, shape shaft, and maximum dbh) were destined for harvest.

2.3. Cost–Benefit and Sensitivity Analysis

Net present value (NPV) was used to estimate profitability of criteria for harvesting in degraded forests. NPV is a tool to calculate profitability of projects through discounted cash flow analysis [44]:
N P V = ∑ t = 0 n B t ( 1 + r ) t −   C t ( 1 + r ) t
where Bt is the revenues for the sale of standing wood in year t, Ct is the total cost in year t, r is the discount rate per year, t is the year when revenue or cost occurs, and n is the time demanded for revenues. Only NPVs larger than zero indicate profitability of the investment [45]. The profitability of the sale of standing wood was calculated based on the 13 years of forest growth, after the last logging at Shet farm.
Cash flow was based on field worksheets provided by the Arboris Group, with a total cost of USD 37.82 ha−1, which is the sum of the annual cost plus the costs of forest census, planning for harvest, and management. The revenues considered for the sale of standing wood is the result of the volume of wood multiplied by the price determined by the business group for the inventoried species, according to the market value group (1, 2, and 3). Based on the values of costs and revenues, a cash flow was created using current values (Table 2).
A nominal interest rate of 7% per year was used to estimate profitability. This is the interest rate on the capital loan considered by Banco do Brasil’s Commercial Forest Planting Program (PROPFLORA) and other banks accredited by the National Bank for Economic and Social Development (BNDES) for investing and producing forests.
Scenarios with different interest rates were constructed through a sensitivity analysis to project the profitability of the commercialization of trees authorized for harvest. In addition to the basic rate of 7%, other scenarios were built with interest rates of 4% and 10% per year. These scenarios aim to encompass, through interest rates, possible economic fluctuations in wood-based products and forest production inputs/operations and, consequently, in the cost of production, wood selling price and interest rates, and to project how they can affect the NPV if they occur.

3. Results

3.1. Technical Analysis

In the forest census, 85.907 trees ha−1 (100.8566 m3 ha−1) were inventoried with dbh ≥ 25 cm, belonging to 106 species. When applying the harvest criteria, 19.923 trees ha−1 (29.99 m3 ha−1), referring to 53 species, were destined for harvest. Some trees were selected by more than one criterion, totalizing 17.985 trees ha−1 by density, 1.831 trees ha−1 by compromised health, 0.212 trees ha−1 by maximum dbh, 18.933 trees ha−1 by minimum dbh, 1.385 trees ha−1 by tree stem (quality 3), and 0.080 trees ha−1 by species conservation (Figure 2).
Among the inventoried population, 57.50% (49.401 trees ha−1) are S. parahyba var. amazonicum, genus Cecropia (C. distachya, C. sciadophylla, C. palmata), C. aliodora, H. pedunculata, Inga spp., P. guianensis, S. pruriens, T. burseraefolia, Talisia sp., and Z. ekmanii. These species contributed 90.26% of trees (17.985 trees ha−1) and 80.29% of volume (24.0863 m3 ha−1) of the harvest. S. parahyba var. amazonicum (12.881 trees ha−1) and genus Cecropia (12.705 trees ha−1) were the species with the highest tree density (29.78% of trees) and the highest harvested volume (58.30%).
The trees classified by the health criterion represented 2.16% (1.854 trees ha−1) of the total inventoried, totalizing 48 species and 1.4032 m3 ha−1. Of this total, 98.79% (1.832 trees ha−1) were destined for harvest totalizing 1.3943 m3 ha−1 (99.37% m3 ha−1). The species that had compromised health were more frequently genus of Cecropia, Inga spp., T. burseraefolia, and P. guianensis, representing 67.18% of the population destined for harvest by this criterion.
The population inventoried with dbh > 100 cm was 0.269 trees ha−1 (0.31%), 28 species, and a volume of 3.6182 m3 ha−1. According to the maximum dbh criterion, 0.213 trees ha−1 (79.17%) of 20 species with a volume of 2.9250 m3 ha−1 (80.84%) were destined for harvest. The species C. tocantinum, P. suaveolens and T. burseraefolia, contributed 64.04% of the trees destined for harvest by the maximum dbh criterion.
Among the inventoried population, 76.387 trees ha−1 (88.92%) belong to 104 species and were present in the dbh classes between 25 and 55 cm. When the minimum dbh criterion (≥25 and <55 cm) was applied, 17.657 trees ha−1 (21.7044 m3 ha−1), distributed in 47 species, were destined for harvest. In the middle of the species with the highest frequency of trees destined for harvest by the minimum dbh criterion are genus Cecropia, Inga spp., P. guianensis, S. parahyba var. amazonicum, S. pruriens, T. burseraefolia, and Z. ekmanii, representing 89.77% (16.882 trees ha−1).
In the forest census, 4.671 trees ha−1 (6.0073 m3 ha−1) with a tree stem type quality 3 were verified and allocated in 66 species, which corresponded to 5.44%. Among them, 29.66% (1.385 trees ha−1) were destined for harvest, referring to 2.5297 m3 ha−1 of 26 species. The species with the highest frequency of trees destined for harvest using the tree stem quality 3 criterion were genus Cecropia, C. tocantinum, E. ovata, G. sericeum, Inga spp., P. guianensis, S. parahyba var. amazonicum, and T. burseraefolia, with 1.142 trees ha−1 (2.1830 m3 ha−1).
The conservation criterion inventoried 4.221 trees ha−1 that correspond to 4.91% (7.5167 m3 ha−1) and belong to 13 species classified as having density below 0.15 trees ha−1 and pressed in the previous logging. Of these trees, 4.141 trees ha−1 (7.3532 m3 ha−1) were set as remainings and only 0.080 trees ha−1 were harvested.

3.2. Cost–Benefit and Sensitivity Analysis

Cost–benefit analysis indicates the application of the harvest criteria in a lucrative activity, proving that this forest management system is financially viable under the nominal interest rate of 6% per year, since their NPVs were higher than zero in all simulations (Figure 3).
Maintenance cost of the area is relatively low in the period of forest growth, with 95% of the costs associated with the activities of the year in which the forest census was carried out to sale of standing wood. This fact positively disfavors the other feasible activities for the area which, according to Brazilian regulations, would need at least two more decades to carry out standing wood sale activities.
Scenarios with interest rates below and above the rate of 7% per year showed positive NPV in all simulations. It shows that with a fluctuation in the discount rate between 4% and 10% there is no probability of obtaining an NPV below USD 425.62 ha−1. This fact weighs in favor of forest owners who have invested in these forest profiles in recent decades but still could not economically enjoy the wood products of the respective forests.

4. Discussion

4.1. Technical Analysis

It is known that harvesting intervention in intensely pressured forests is one of the factors that influences the composition of future species in the forest, without compromising species diversity, mainly promoting the abundance of pioneer species, with no significant negative effect on shade-tolerant species [3,46,47]. In this case, the criteria defined for harvesting involve a rational management hypothesis aimed at maintaining the abundance of species in the forest, from the conservation of species and the use of trees with compromised health, senescents, and promoting species of greater and lower value in the forest.
In order to issue a logging authorization in natural forests in the Amazon, Brazilian authorities require trees with dbh ≥ 50 cm to be selected for harvest, directing the use of trees of larger diameter and species of high commercial value. However, this management pressures a reduced number of species in successive harvesting events, reducing the density and dominance of these species and compromising the perpetuation of forest production and abundance [14,47,48,49].
Some species do not reach the minimum diameter determined by Brazilian regulations (dbh > 50 cm) due to their own natural characteristics. These species are included in the forest productive chain by the destination for logging trees with dbh ≥ 25 cm and with a high population density [14,15,21]. One example is the Cecropia that is part of the plywood panel production chain at Adeco Indústria e Comércio de Compensados Ltd.a. industry located in Dom Eliseu-PA, Brazil [50]. The Cecropia is highlighted for being an important species in the recovery of the forest [51] and traditional medicine as well [52]. Other species such as Manilkara elata, Swietenia macrophylla, and Dipteryx odorata need more time to develop and become economically and ecologically productive [8,10,53,54,55].
Species submitted to enrichment planting in clearings and S. parahyba var. amazonicum (from this study) tend to form high density at the site [33]. Therefore, the result of forest clearing with S. parahyba var. amazonicum added to the natural regeneration of Cecropia genus specimens, both pioneers with short life cycle, promoted the restructuring and productive viability of the forest in approximately 10 years [21,56,57,58]. Consequently, it is suggested that these populations are preferably used for harvesting, supposing the maintenance of remaining trees of low-density species and favor the diversity of the forest. Researches carried out with the planting of C. odorata, C. goeldiana, H. serratifolius, M. itauba, and H. courbaril in clearings identified a relatively slower development [59,60]. It takes more time for the recovery process of forest productivity. However, such technique has potential for use in other species that have regeneration difficulties or in cases where density is intended to increase.
The health level of the trees is defined as one of the main causes of tree mortality [61]. Although this loss generaly does not have economic value, it is only evaluated as a priority when there is an importance of nutrient cycling [62]. It excludes the hypothesis that these trees are precursors of diseases that, biologically, could be transmitted to their descendants [63].
In this study, harvesting trees with compromised health is potential alternative to eliminate hosts of pests and diseases and to make available a greater amount of resources (e.g., space, light, water, and nutrients). Is is known that pests and diseases can lead to changes in the composition, structure, functions, and productivity of forests [64,65,66]. This criterion represented a relatively low percentage in relation to the total population inventoried (2.16%; 1.854 trees ha−1). However, 98.79% of these trees with compromised health were destined for harvest and used in the industry.
The Amazon wealth is characterized by the rarity of species [67], and knowledge about the density per species to define the degree of their conservation is limited [68]. The minimum population density (>0.15 trees ha−1) defined in this study takes into account the stages of plant development [69] so that the richness, diversity, and productivity of multiple species are maintained. The conservation of low-density species and those defined as being widely pressured in previous harvests was applied to favor natural regeneration and to expand the population in future harvests, according to the concept proposed of population control. The same could be applied to the tree stem criterion, which indicates that priority should be given to harvesting trees with tree stem quality 3 and senescent in the forest, seeking to improve the quality of the forest based on the concept of population genetics that defines matrix trees to generate descendants with better quality.

4.2. Cost-Benefit and Sensitivity Analysis

Successful the application of criteria for harvesting in this study confirms the results from other experiments [24,25,26,27,28,29]. The authors suggest the economic efficiency and ecological potential of applying harvesting criteria to degraded tropical forests, which presents itself as a potential silvicultural alternative for the management of the tropical forest.
The use of silvicultural practices aiming profitability at short, medium and long term is one of the factors that makes it possible to make the management of tropical forests truly sustainable for maintaining wealth and productivity. This study demonstrates the application of technical and economic tools that aim to increase the health and productivity of these forest profiles, contribute significantly to breake paradigms and encourage effective practices of sustainable management of intensively exploited tropical forests.
Applying the criteria for harvesting makes it possible to have financial profitability from the potential conservation techniques of species and the use of trees with compromised health, senescents, and promoting species of greater and lower value in the forest. Furthermore, the application of these criteria for harvesting tends to promote continuous forest production, which is an essential factor for this type of forest to become desirable for conservation.
It is suggested that tree harvesting in Amazon forests that are considered intensively exploited should be treated as silvicultural interventions aiming to maintain biodiversity and timber productivity. Remaining trees could be benefitted from the low canopy height (20 m) of the degraded forest in Fazenda Shet. Lower canopy heights contribute for a larger illumination reaching the forest floor [27]. Dealing with the forest as an environmentally and financially productive structure throughout the interventions process is a promising purpose to awaken the people’s desire and motivation to care for and to maintain this standing forest profile.
As a viable silvicultural alternative, the application of criteria for harvesting can be applied in tropical forests under risk of land use changes [29]. Such treatment can provide a high timber production while the treated forest maintains its environmental services. This is particularly important in the arc of deforestation region [21,48], in the Brazilian Amazon, where the experiment was developed. The arc of deforestation, a 500,000 km2 area in south and southeast Amazon, presents high levels of forest losses and degradation due to decades of uncontrolled logging. Its landscapes are formed by a mosaic of lands covered by crop fields, pastures, and degraded forests.
At this moment, it is necessary to comment on the management of natural forests in the Brazilian Amazon and forests that have been intensively explored in the past. Financial returns, however, are not the only benefit of the application of criteria for harvesting in degraded tropical forests. Fazenda Shet typically represents private areas with degraded forests in the arc of deforestation. It is not part of a public protected area (conservation unit) but a private area under significant deforestation risks due to high pressures of land use changes to more financially competitive activities such as agriculture and livestock.
Under this scenario, the application of criteria for harvesting with a minimum cutting diameter of 25 cm permits shorter cycles (13 years in this experiment) and has the potential to promote degraded tropical forests in a more competitive land use in opposition to the long harvesting cycles allowed in the Brazilian Amazon (30–35 years). In a shorter cutting cycle, based on an assortment of planted species and/or less commercially known species, but which are abundant in the diameter classes ≥ 25 cm, as well as trees of compromised health, of low-quality tree stem and/or for presenting biological characteristics that make them suitable for harvest, depending on the dbh ≥ 25 cm, makes the harvest more profitable. However, specific legal regulations addressed to the management of degraded natural forests are necessary to guarantee their conservation and economic viability.

5. Conclusions

The case study indicated that the application of criteria for harvesting trees with a minimum cutting diameter of 25 cm in degraded tropical forests it’s a lucrative activity with potential conservationist and that proposes to make a more competitive land use in opposition to the long harvesting cycles allowed in the Brazilian Amazon, mainly, for private forests that have been heavily exploited in the past.
The selection of trees with a minimum cut diameter of 25 cm in shorter cycles is proposed, based on the assumption of promoting new commercial species, diversifying the income of forest owners and reducing pressure on species that have been the most pressured in the past.
In all scenarios, the application of criteria for harvesting presented excellent cost-benefit ratios, being little sensitive to discount rates.
The set of actions presented has potential for favors the maintenance of biodiversity and expansion of low-density populations and health of forest. In addition, it is more feasible for the supply of forest products in a shorter time than the provided for in Brazilian regulations.
Degraded tropical forests similar to this case study tend to be able to be subjected to silvicultural interventions in shorter cycles than those recommended by Brazilian regulations, respecting the specificities of the species and also of the location, as long as the harvest is carried out in enriched clearings, regeneration natural of species with high tree density, considering the health conditions and species suitable for harvesting due to biological characteristics.
With the recommendation of potential forest management strategies in the Amazon, it is expected to motivate in a practical way the maintenance of the forest standing, making it a sustainable financial asset from an environmental, social and economic point of view.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.A.S., J.A.G.Y., O.J.R.d.A. and A.R.R.; methodology, M.A.S., J.A.G.Y., A.R.R., P.C.G.P.; analysis, M.A.S., J.A.G.Y., A.R.R., S.B.V. and A.S.; resources, S.B.V. and A.S.; data curation P.C.G.P., S.B.V. and A.S.; writing—original draft preparation M.A.S., S.B.V. and A.S.; writing—review and editing, S.B.V. and A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

To the project “Innovation network of the timber forest production chain to promote the sustainable development of the State of Pará, Brazil-Rede Biomassa Florestal”, also called “Sub-Bosque” project (2009–2014).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Garrido Filha, I. Manejo florestal: Questões econômico-financeiras e ambientais. Estud. Av. 2002, 16, 91–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Edwards, D.P.; Tobias, J.A.; Sheil, D.; Meijaard, E.; Laurance, W.F. Maintaining ecosystem function and services in logged tropical forests. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2014, 29, 511–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Schwartz, G.; Peña-Claros, M.J.; Lopes, C.A.J.; Mohrena, G.M.J.; Kanashiro, M. Mid-term effects of reduced-impact logging on the regeneration of seven tree commercial species in the Eastern Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 274, 116–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Macpherson, A.J.; Carter, D.R.; Schulze, M.; Vidal, E. The sustainability of timber production from Eastern Amazonian forests. Land Use Policy 2012, 29, 339–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Braz, E.M.; Schneider, P.R.; de Mattos, P.P.; Thaines, F.; Selle, G.L.; de Oliveira, M.F.; Oliveira, L.C. Manejo da estrutura diamétrica remanescente de florestas tropicais. Cienc. Florest. 2012, 22, 787–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Andrade, C.G.C.; da Silva, M.L.; Torres, C.M.M.E.; Ruschel, A.R.; da Silva, L.F.; de Andrade, D.F.C.; Reis, L.P. Crescimento diamétrico e tempo de passagem de Minquartia guianensis após manejo na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós. Pesqui. Florest. Bras. 2017, 37, 299–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. David, H.C.; Carvalho, J.O.P.; Piresb, I.P.; Santosa, L.S.; Barbosa, E.S.; Braga, N.S. A 20-year tree liberation experiment in the Amazon: Highlights for diameter growth rates and species-specific management. For. Ecol. Manag. 2019, 453, 117584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Ferreira, T.M.C.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Emmert, F.; Ruschel, A.R.; Nascimento, R.G.M. How long does the Amazon rainforest take to grow commercially sized trees? An estimation methodology for Manilkara elata (Allemão ex Miq.) Monach. For. Ecol. Manag. 2020, 473, 118333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Free, C.M.; Matthew Landis, R.; Grogan, J.; Schulze, M.D.; Lentini, M.; Dünisch, O. Management implications of long-term tree growth and mortality rates: A modeling study of big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in the Brazilian Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 2014, 330, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Vinson, C.C.; Kanashiro, M.; Sebbenn, A.M.; Williams, T.C.; Harris, S.A.; Boshier, D.H. Long-term impacts of selective logging on two Amazonian tree species with contrasting ecological and reproductive characteristics: Inferences from Eco-gene model simulations. Heredity 2014, 115, 130–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Putz, F.E.; Zuidema, P.A.; Synnott, T.; Peña-Claros, M.; Pinard, M.A.; Sheil, D.; Vanclay, J.K. Sustaining conservation values in selectively logged tropical forests: The attained and the attainable. Conserv. Lett. 2012, 5, 296–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Institui o Código Florestal. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil; Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA): Brasília, Brazil, 1965.
  13. Institui o novo Código Florestal. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil; Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA): Brasília, Brazil, 2012.
  14. Institui o Código Florestal. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil; Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA): Brasília, Brazil, 2006.
  15. Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente (CONAMA). Diário Oficial da República Federativa; Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente: Brasília, Brazil, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  16. Brasília Ambiental Ministry of Environment. Dispõe Sobre as Sanções Penais e Administrativas Derivadas de Condutas e Atividades Lesivas ao Meio Ambiente, e dá Outras Providências; Diário Oficial da República Federativa: Brasília, Brazil, 1998. [Google Scholar]
  17. Cardoso, D.; Särkinen, T.; Alexander, S.; Amorim, A.M.; Bittrich, V.; Celis, M.; Daly, D.C. Amazon plant diversity revealed by a taxonomically verified species list. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 10695–10700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  18. De Assis, R.L.; Wittmann, F. Forest structure and tree species composition of the understory of two central Amazonian várzea forests of contrasting flood heights. Flora 2011, 206, 251–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Condé, T.M.; Tonini, H. Fitossociologia de uma Floresta Ombrófila Densa na Amazônia Setentrional, Roraima, Brasil. Acta Amaz. 2013, 43, 247–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. De Jesus Veiga Carim, M.; da Silva Guimarães, J.R.; de Cassia Leoncio Tostes, L.; Takiyama, L.R.; Wittmann, F. Composition, structure and floristic diversity in dense rain forest in the Eastern Amazon, Amapá, Brazil. Acta Sci. 2015, 37, 419–426. [Google Scholar]
  21. Pereira, P.C.G. Potencial Silvicultural das Espécies do Gênero Cecropia na Amazônia. Master’s Thesis, Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Belém, Brasil, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  22. De Avila, A.L.; Ruschel, A.R.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Mazzei, L.; Silva, J.N.M.; do Carmo Lopes, J.; Araujo, M.M.; Dormann, C.F.; Bauhus, J. Medium-term dynamics of tree species composition in response to silvicultural intervention intensities in a tropical rain forest. Biol. Conserv. 2015, 191, 577–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. De Avila, A.L.; Schwartz, G.; Ruschel, A.R.; do Carmo Lopes, J.; Silva, J.N.M.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Dormann, C.F.; Mazzei, L.; Soares, M.H.M.; Bauhus, J. Recruitment, growth and recovery of commercial tree species over 30 years following logging and thinning in a tropical rain forest. For. Ecol. Manag. 2017, 385, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Dionisio, L.F.S.; Schwartz, G.; do Carmo Lopes, J.; de Assis Oliveira, F. Growth, mortality, and recruitment of tree species in an Amazonian rainforest over 13 years of reduced impact logging. For. Ecol. Manag. 2018, 430, 150–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Dionisio, L.F.S.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Schwartz, G.; Leão, F.; Castro, T.C. Incremento, recrutamento e mortalidade pós-colheita de Duguetia spp. na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós, Pará. Sci. For. 2018, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Inpe. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais. Degradação florestal de 2007 a 2016. Available online: http://www.obt.inpe.br/OBT/assuntos/programas/amazonia/degrad (accessed on 17 November 2019).
  27. Fearnside, F.P. Manejo Florestal na Amazônia: Necessidade de novos critérios na avaliação de opções de desenvolvimento. In Pará Desenvolvimento; Departamento de Ecologia do Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA: Manaus, Brazil, 1989; p. 25. [Google Scholar]
  28. Domingues, M.S.; Bermann, C. O arco de desflorestamento na Amazônia: Da pecuária à soja. Ambiente Soc. 2012, 15, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Anderson, L.O.; Rojas, E.H.M.; Shimabukuro, Y.E. Avanço da soja sobre os ecossistemas cerrado e floresta no estado do Mato Grosso. In SBSR 05-10 Abril 2003; INPE: Belo Horizonte, Brasil, 2003; Volume 11, pp. 19–25. [Google Scholar]
  30. Sales, A.; Gonzáles, D.G.E.; Martins, T.G.V.; Silva, G.C.C.; Spletozer, A.G.; de Almeida Telles, L.A.; Siviero, M.A.; Lorenzon, A.S. Optimization of Skid Trails and Log Yards on the Amazon Forest. Forests 2019, 10, 252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Melo, L.E.L. Caracterização do Câmbio e do Lenho de Árvores de Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby de Plantação em Clareira da Amazônia. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, Brazil, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  32. Machado, J.F.; Hillig, É.; Watzlawic, L.F.; Bednarczuk, E.; Tavares, E.L. Production of plywood panel for exterior use with paricá and embaúba timbers. Rev. Árvore 2018, 42, e420406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Schwartz, G.; Pereira, P.C.G.; Siviero, M.A.; Pereira, J.F.; Ruschel, A.R.; Yared, J.A.G. Enrichment planting in logging gaps with Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby: A financially profitable alternative for degraded tropical forests in the Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 2017, 390, 166–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Sales, A.; Siviero, M.A.; Pereira, P.C.G.; Vieira, S.B.; Berberian, G.A.; Miranda, B.M. Estimation of the commercial height of trees with laser meter: A viable alternative for forest management in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecol. Evol. 2020, 10, 3578–3583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Siviero, M.A.; Yared, J.A.G.; Ruschel, A.R.; Vieira, S.B.; Sales, A.; Pereira, J.F.; Aguiar, O.J.R.; Brienza Junior, S.; Pereira, P.C.G.; Berberian, G.A.; et al. Manejo de florestas naturais degradadas na Amazônia: Estudo de caso sobre critérios de colheita. Cienc. Florest. 2020, 30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Alvares, C.A.; Stape, J.L.; Sentelhas, P.C.; de Moraes Gonçalves, J.L.; Sparovek, G. Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil. Metz 2013, 22, 711–728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Instituto de Desenvolvimento Econômico, Social e Ambiental do Pará. Estatística Municipal de Dom Eliseu; Prefeitura de Dom Eliseu: Pará, Brazil, 2014; p. 47. [Google Scholar]
  38. Martorano, L.G.; Monteiro, D.C.A.; Brienza Junior, S.; Lisboa, L.S.; Espírito Santo, J.M.; Almeida, R.F. Top-bioclimate conditions associated to natural occurrence of two Amazonian native tree species for sustainable reforestation in the State of Para. In Ecosystems and Sustainable Development VIII; Villacampa, Y., Brebbia, C.A., Eds.; Universidad de Alicant: Valencia, Spain, 2011; Volume 144, pp. 111–122. [Google Scholar]
  39. IBGE. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Manual Técnico da Vegetação Brasileira: Sistema Fitogeográfico, Inventário das Formações Florestais e Campestres, Técnicas e Manejo de Coleções Botânicas, Procedimentos para Mapeamentos; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2012; p. 92. [Google Scholar]
  40. Teixeira, P.C.; Donagemma, G.K.; Fontana, A.; Teixeira, W.G. Manual de Métodos de Análise de Solo; Embrapa Solos: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2017; p. 574. [Google Scholar]
  41. Siviero, M.A. É possível inovar no manejo de florestas naturais? Ref. Florest. 2011, 120, 94–96. [Google Scholar]
  42. Sabogal, C.; Silva, J.N.M.; Zweede, J.; Júnior, R.; Barreto, P.; Guerreiro, C.A. Diretrizes Técnicas Para a Exploração de Impacto Reduzido em Operações Florestais de Terra Firme na Amazônia Brasileira; Embrapa Amazônia Oriental: Belém, Pará, Brazil, 2009; p. 51. [Google Scholar]
  43. De Souza, A.L.; Soares, C.P.B. Florestas Nativas: Estrutura, Dinâmica e Manejo, 2nd ed.; Universidade Federal de Viçosa: Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2013; p. 322. [Google Scholar]
  44. Rezende, J.L.P.; Oliveira, A.D. Análise Econômica e Social de Projetos Florestais; Universidade Federal de Viçosa: Viçosa, MG, Brazil, 2013; p. 385. [Google Scholar]
  45. Virgens, A.P.D.; Freitas, L.C.; Leite, A.M.P. Análise econômica e de sensibilidade em um povoamento implantado no sudoeste da Bahia. Floresta Ambient. 2016, 23, 211–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Peña-Claros, M.; Peters, E.M.; Justiniano, M.J.; Bongers, F.; Blate, G.M.; Fredericksen, T.S.; Putz, F.E. Regeneration of commercial tree species following silvicultural treatments in a moist tropical forest. For. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 255, 1283–1293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. De Araujo, H.J.B. Inventário florestal a 100% em pequenas áreas sob manejo florestal madeireiro. Acta Amaz. 2006, 36, 447–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Sist, P.; Ferreira, F.N. Sustainability of reduced-impact logging in the Eastern Amazon. For. Ecol. Manag. 2007, 243, 199–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. De Barros Cavalcanti, F.J.; do Amaral Machado, S.; Osokawa, R.T.; da Cunha, U.S. Comparação dos valores estimados por amostragem na caracterização da estrutura de uma área de floresta na Amazônia com as informações registradas no censo florestal. Rev. Árvore 2011, 35, 1061–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Iwakiri, S.; Zeller, F.; Pinto, J.A.; Ramirez, M.G.L.; Souza, M.M.; Seixas, R. Avaliação do potencial de utilização da madeira de Schizolobium amazonicum “Paricá” e Cecropia hololeuca “Embaúba” para produção de painéis aglomerados. Acta Amaz. 2010, 40, 303–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Braga, A.J.T.; Griffith, J.J.; de Paiva, H.N.; Meira Neto, J.A.A. Composição do banco de sementes de uma floresta semidecidual secundária considerando o seu potencial de uso para recuperação ambiental. Rev. Árvore 2008, 32, 1089–1098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Garzón, G.; Paola, L. Conocimiento tradicional sobre la plantas medicinales de yarumo (Cecropia sciadophylla), carambolo (Averrhoa carambola) y uña de gato (Uncaria tomentosa) en el resguardo indígena de Macedonia, Amazonas. Luna Azul 2016, 43, 386–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. De Barros Francez, L.M.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; da Sliva Jardim, F.C.; Quanz, B.; Pinheiro, K.A.O. Efeito de duas intensidades de exploração de madeira na estrutura de uma floresta natural na região de Paragominas, Pará. Acta Amaz. 2009, 39, 851–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Da Cunha, T.; Carvalho, J. Dinâmica da população de Manilkara huberi (Ducke) A. Chev. durante 26 anos após a exploração florestal em uma área de terra firme na Amazônia brasileira. Ciênc. Florest. 2014, 24, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  55. Grogan, J.; Landis, R.M.; Free, C.M.; Schulze, M.D.; Lentini, M.; Ashton, M.S. Big-leaf mahogany Swietenia macrophylla population dynamics and implications for sustainable management. J. Appl. Ecol. 2014, 51, 664–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Siviero, M.A. Nossa indústria madeireira rumo à sustentabilidade. Ref. Florest. 2009, 98, 72–73. [Google Scholar]
  57. Schwartz, G.; Lopes, J.C.A.; Mohren, G.M.J.; Peña-Claros, M. Post-harvesting silvicultural treatments in logging gaps: A comparison between enrichment planting and tending of natural regeneration. Ecol. Manag. 2013, 293, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Gomes, J.M.; da Silva, J.C.F.; Vieira, S.B.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Oliveira, L.C.L.Q.; de Queiroz, W.T. Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby pode ser utilizada em enriquecimento de clareiras de exploração florestal na Amazônia. Cienc. Florest. 2019, 29, 417–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Araujo, H.J.B.; Correia, M.F. Sobrevivência e causas da debilidade das mudas em enriquecimento de clareiras em florestas no Acre. In Proceedings of the XII Congresso de Ecologia do Brasil 2015, Embrapa Acre, Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil, 24 September 2015; p. 3. [Google Scholar]
  60. Vieira, S.B.; de Carvalho, J.O.P.; Gomes, J.M.; da Silva, J.C.F.; Ruschel, A.R. Cedrela odorata L. tem potencial para ser utilizada na silvicultura pós-colheita na Amazônia brasileira? Cienc. Florest. 2018, 28, 1230–1238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Fontes, C.G. Revelando as Causas e a Distribuição Temporal da Mortalidade Arbórea em uma Floresta de Terra-Firme na Amazônia Central. Master’s Thesis, Mestrado em Ciências Florestais, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa na Amazônia, INPA, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  62. Poggiani, F. Florestas para fins energéticos e ciclagem de nutrientes. Série Técnica IPEF 1980, 1, D1–D11. [Google Scholar]
  63. Garcia, L.C.; Sousa, S.G.A.; Lima, R.B.M. Seleção de Matrizes, Coleta e Manejo de Sementes Florestais Nativas da Amazônia; Documentos 89; Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental: Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, 2011; p. 20. [Google Scholar]
  64. Dos Santos Guedes, J.; Kruped, R.A. Características ecológicas e fitossanidade de espécies arbóreas em um fragmento de Floresta Ombrófila Densa da região sudeste do estado de São Paulo. Ambiência 2017, 13, 311–324. [Google Scholar]
  65. Serviço Florestal Brasileiro. Inventário Florestal Nacional: Principais Resultados: Paraná Recurso Eletrônico/Serviço Florestal Brasileiro; Série Relatórios Técnicos—IFN; MMA: Brasília, Brazil, 2018; p. 84. ISBN 978-85-7738-402-0. (algumas color). Available online: http://www.florestal.gov.br/publicacoes (accessed on 22 May 2020).
  66. Parisi, J.J.D.; dos Santos, A.F.; Barbedo, C.J.; Medina, P.F. Patologia de Sementes Florestais: Danos, Detecção e Controle, uma revisão. Summa Phytopathol. 2010, 45, 129–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  67. Steege, H.T.; Nigel, C.A.; Sabatier, D.; Baraloto, C.; Salomao, R.P.; Guevara, J.E.; Phillips, O.L.; Castilho, C.V.; Magnusson, W.E.; Molino, J.; et al. Hyperdominance in the Amazonian Tree Flora. Science 2013, 342, 1243092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  68. Procópio, L.C.; Gayot, M.; Sist, P.; Ferraz, I.D.K. As espécies de tauari (Lecythidaceae) em florestas de terra firme da Amazônia: Padrões de distribuição geográfica, abundâncias e implicações para a conservação. Acta Bot. Bras. 2010, 24, 883–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Thomas, H. Senescence, ageing and death of the whole plant. New Phytol. 2013, 197, 696–711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Diversity 12 00373 g001 550
Figure 1. Location and description of Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Figure 1. Location and description of Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Diversity 12 00373 g001
Diversity 12 00373 g002 550
Figure 2. Trees selected for harvest and remaining trees (RM), forest management area (535.6 ha) at Shet Farm, in Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Figure 2. Trees selected for harvest and remaining trees (RM), forest management area (535.6 ha) at Shet Farm, in Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Diversity 12 00373 g002
Diversity 12 00373 g003 550
Figure 3. Cash flow and net present value (NPV) (USD ha−1) with discount rates, from 4% to 10% per year, for the forest management activity submitted to harvest criteria at Shet Farm, in Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Figure 3. Cash flow and net present value (NPV) (USD ha−1) with discount rates, from 4% to 10% per year, for the forest management activity submitted to harvest criteria at Shet Farm, in Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Diversity 12 00373 g003
Table
Table 1. Species (commom and scientific name) listed by market value group, forest management area (535.6 ha) at Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Table 1. Species (commom and scientific name) listed by market value group, forest management area (535.6 ha) at Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Group 1
Angelim-pedra (Hymenolobium petraeum Ducke); cedro (Cedrela odorata L.); copaíba (Copaifera Ducke); cumaru (Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd.); freijó-cinza (Cordia goeldiana Huber); ipê-amarelo (Handrohanthus serratifolius (Vahl) S. Grose); jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril L.); jatobá-curuba (Hymenaea parvifolia Huber); louro-canela (Nectandra sp.); maçaranduba (Manilkara elata (Allemão ex Miq.) Monach.); muiracatiara (Astronium lecointei Ducke); roxinho (Peltogyne lecointei Ducke); and tatajuba (Bagassa guianensis Aubl.).
Group 2
Amapá (Brosimum guianense (Aubl.) Huber); amarelão (Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel) J. F. Macbr.); amescla/breu (Trattinnickia burseraefolia Mart. Willd.); amesclão (Trattinnickia rhoifolia Willd.); amesclinha (Protium altissimum (Aubl.)) Marchand); angico/timborana (Pseudopiptadenia suaveolens (Miq.) J. W. Grimes); caju (Anacardium giganteum W. Hancock ex Engl.); caneleiro (Cenostigma tocantinum Ducke); casca seca (Licania sp. Aubl.); catuaba (Lacmellea aculeata (Ducke) Monach.); cedrorana (Vochysia maxima Ducke); coco-pau (Coupeia robusta Huber); cupiúba (Goupia glabra Aubl.); axixá/envira-quiabo (Sterculia pruriens (Aubl.) K. Schum.); envira/envira-preta (Guatteria punctata (Aubl.) R. A. Howard); escorrega-macaco (Albizia pedicellaris (DC.) L. Rico); estopeiro/tauari (Couratari sp. Aubl.); farinha-seca (Ampelocera edentula Kuhlm.); faveira (Parkia multijuga Benth.); goiabão (Pouteria bilocularis (H. K. A. Winkl.) Baehni); inharé (Helicostylis pedunculata Benoist); jarana (Lecythis lurida (Miers) S.A. Mori); louro-pimenta (Ocotea sp.); louro-vermelho (Sextonia rubra (Mez) van der Werff); mandiocão/morototó (Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Decne. & Planch.); marupá (Simarouba amara Aubl.); orelha-de-macaco (Enterolobium schomburgkii (Benth.) Benth.); paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby); pau-santo (Zollernia paraensis Huber); pequiá (Caryocar vilosum (Aubl.) Pers.); pequiarana (Caryocar glabrum (Aubl.) Pers.); quina (Geissospermum sericeum Miers); quina-rosa (Quiina amazonica A.C.Sm.); sapucaia (Lecythis pisonis Cambess.); seringarana (Ecclinusa guianensis Eyma); sumaúma (Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.); tanibuca (Terminalia tanibouca Rich.); itaúba (Mezilaurus itauba (Meisn.) Taub. ex Mez); tauari (Couratari ssp./Eschweilera coriacea (DC.) S. A. Mori) and uxi (Endopleura uchi (Huber) Cuatrec.).
Group 3
Amarelinho (Neoraputia paraensis (Ducke) Emmerich ex Kallunki); andirobarana (Guarea kunthiana A. Juss.); ata (Annona sp.); atraca (Ficus sp.); baço-de-boi (Myrocarpus venezuelensis Rudd); bicuíba/ucuúba-da-terra-firme (Virola michelii Heckel); Buranju (Neea floribunda Poepp. & Endl.); Cacau (Theobroma speciosa Willd. ex Spreng.); canafístula (Senna multijuga (Rich.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby); capa-bode (Bauhinia acreana Harms.); conduru (Cynometra bauhiniifolia Benth.); cravinho/goiabarana (Myrcia paivae O.Berg); embaúba (Cecropia distachya Huber./C. sciadophylla Mart./C. palmata Willd.; Pourouma guianensis Aubl.); freijó-branco (Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham.); Gabiroba (Campomanesia grandiflora (Aubl.) Sagot); gema-de-ovo (Amphiodon effusus HuberPoecilanthe); goiabinha (Eugenia lambertiana DC.); inajarana (Quararibea guianensis Aubl.); ingá (Inga spp.; Inga alba (Sw.) Willd.; jaca-braba (Abarema campestres (Spruce ex Benth.) Barneby & J. W. Grimes); jambo/muúba (Bellucia grossularioides (L.) Triana); jiboião/matamatá-preto (Eschweilera grandiflora (Aubl.) Sandwith); jurema (Senna polyphylla (Jacq.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby); juruparana (Gustavia augusta L.); limãozinho (Zanthoxylum rhoifolia Lam/Z. ekmanii (Urb.) Alain); mangaba/abiu-mangabarana (Micropholis guyanensis (A. DC.) Pierre); mangue (Buchenavia capitata (Vahl) Eichler); maria-preta (Ziziphus cinnamomum Triana & Planch.); matamata/matamata-jibóia (Eschweilera ovata (Cambess.) Mart. ex Miers); mirindiba (Glycydendron amazonicum Ducke); moreira (Maclura tinctoria (L.) D. Don ex Steud.); mutamba (Guazuma umifolia Lam.); pele de sapo (Pausandra trianae (Müll.Arg.) Baill.); pitomba (Talisia sp.); seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A Juss) Mull. Arg.); tamburil (Enterolobium maximum Ducke); taxi/taxi-branco (Tachigali vulgaris L. G. Silva & H. C. Lima/Tachigali glauca Tul.) and tuturubá/abiurana (Pouteria guianensis Aubl./Pouteria venosa subsp. amazonica T. D. Penn)
Table
Table 2. Current values of forest management activity. Production for harvest and sales prices of standing timber, market value group, and cash flow for Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Table 2. Current values of forest management activity. Production for harvest and sales prices of standing timber, market value group, and cash flow for Shet Farm, Dom Eliseu, Pará, Brazil.
Production for Harvest (m3 ha−1)Market Value GroupCash Flow (USD ha−1)
Production (m3 ha−1)Price (USD m−3)CostRevenueBalance
123123
29.990.4619.779.7743.0417.3914.5837.82506.00468.18

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Siviero, M.A.; Ruschel, A.R.; Yared, J.A.G.; de Aguiar, O.J.R.; Pereira, P.C.G.; Vieira, S.B.; Sales, A. Harvesting Criteria Application as a Technical and Financial Alternative for Management of Degraded Tropical Forests: A Case Study from Brazilian Amazon. Diversity 2020, 12, 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100373

AMA Style

Siviero MA, Ruschel AR, Yared JAG, de Aguiar OJR, Pereira PCG, Vieira SB, Sales A. Harvesting Criteria Application as a Technical and Financial Alternative for Management of Degraded Tropical Forests: A Case Study from Brazilian Amazon. Diversity. 2020; 12(10):373. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100373

Chicago/Turabian Style

Siviero, Marco A., Ademir R. Ruschel, Jorge A. G. Yared, Osmar J. R. de Aguiar, Paulo C. G. Pereira, Sabrina B. Vieira, and Agust Sales. 2020. "Harvesting Criteria Application as a Technical and Financial Alternative for Management of Degraded Tropical Forests: A Case Study from Brazilian Amazon" Diversity 12, no. 10: 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100373

APA Style

Siviero, M. A., Ruschel, A. R., Yared, J. A. G., de Aguiar, O. J. R., Pereira, P. C. G., Vieira, S. B., & Sales, A. (2020). Harvesting Criteria Application as a Technical and Financial Alternative for Management of Degraded Tropical Forests: A Case Study from Brazilian Amazon. Diversity, 12(10), 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100373

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop