Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani

Mustapha, Tijjani; Kwarau, Nathaniel Luka; Patil, Rajesh B.; Tang, Huatao; Abdullahi, Mai-Abba Ishiyaku; Wu, Sheng-Yen; Hou, Youming

doi:10.3390/ijms27031410

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Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani

by

Tijjani Mustapha

^1,2

,

Nathaniel Luka Kwarau

²,

Rajesh B. Patil

³,

Huatao Tang

¹,

Mai-Abba Ishiyaku Abdullahi

²

,

Sheng-Yen Wu

¹ and

Youming Hou

^1,*

¹

State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Key Laboratory of Biopesticides and Chemical Biology, MOE, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China

²

Department of Plant Biology, Federal University Dutse, Dutse P.O. Box 7156, Jigawa State, Nigeria

³

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s, Sinhgad College of Pharmacy, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune 411041, Maharashtra, India

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(3), 1410; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031410 (registering DOI)

Submission received: 30 December 2025 / Revised: 26 January 2026 / Accepted: 27 January 2026 / Published: 30 January 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Strategies for the Discovery, Optimization, and Efficient Use of Green Pesticides)

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Abstract

The pressing need for sustainable, plant-based alternatives is highlighted by the growing resistance of agricultural pests to synthetic pesticides. This study examined the pesticidal potential of phytocompounds from C. tora discovered by GC–MS analysis against important tomato insect (T. absoluta) and fungal pathogen (A. solani). The binding stability and interaction dynamics of specific metabolites with fungal virulence (polygalacturonase, MAP kinase HOG1, and effector AsCEP50) and insect neuromuscular (ryanodine receptor and sodium channel protein) targets were assessed using molecular docking and 100 ns molecular dynamics simulations. Among the screened compounds, squalene and 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid, methyl ester (DHAME) exhibited the strongest binding affinities and conformational stability, with MM-GBSA binding free energies of −38.09 kcal·mol⁻¹ and −52.81 kcal·mol⁻¹ for squalene complexes in T. absoluta and A. solani, respectively. Persistent hydrophobic and mixed hydrophobic–polar contacts that stabilised active-site residues and limited protein flexibility were found by ProLIF analysis. These lively and dynamic profiles imply that DHAME and squalene may interfere with calcium signalling and stress-response pathways, which are essential for the survival and pathogenicity of pests. Hydrophobic interactions were further confirmed as the primary stabilising force by the preponderance of van der Waals and nonpolar solvation energies. The findings show that C. tora metabolites, especially squalene and DHAME, are promising environmentally friendly biopesticide candidates that have both insecticidal and antifungal properties. Their development as sustainable substitutes in integrated pest management systems are supported by their stability, binding efficacy and predicted biosafety.

Keywords: Cassia tora; squalene; docosahexaenoic acid methyl ester; T. absoluta; A. solani; molecular dynamics; MM-GBSA; ProLIF; biopesticide; plant-derived pesticide

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MDPI and ACS Style

Mustapha, T.; Kwarau, N.L.; Patil, R.B.; Tang, H.; Abdullahi, M.-A.I.; Wu, S.-Y.; Hou, Y. Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27, 1410. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031410

AMA Style

Mustapha T, Kwarau NL, Patil RB, Tang H, Abdullahi M-AI, Wu S-Y, Hou Y. Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026; 27(3):1410. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031410

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mustapha, Tijjani, Nathaniel Luka Kwarau, Rajesh B. Patil, Huatao Tang, Mai-Abba Ishiyaku Abdullahi, Sheng-Yen Wu, and Youming Hou. 2026. "Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 27, no. 3: 1410. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031410

APA Style

Mustapha, T., Kwarau, N. L., Patil, R. B., Tang, H., Abdullahi, M.-A. I., Wu, S.-Y., & Hou, Y. (2026). Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(3), 1410. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031410

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Molecular Dynamics Insights into Cassia tora-Derived Phytochemicals as Dual Insecticidal and Antifungal Agents Against Tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani

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