Advancements in Preprocessing and Analysis of Nitrite and Nitrate since 2010 in Biological Samples: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sample Pretreatment
2.1. Simple Sample Treatment
2.2. Evolution of Liquid–Liquid Extraction
2.3. Liquid Phase Microextraction
2.4. SPE plus SPME
2.5. Summary
3. Analytical Methods
3.1. Spectroscopic Methods
3.1.1. Spectrophotometry
3.1.2. Spectrofluorometry
3.1.3. Colorimetry
3.1.4. Chemiluminescence
3.1.5. Raman Spectroscopy
3.2. HPLC Methods
3.3. HPLC-MS
3.4. Ion Chromatography
3.5. Capillary Electrophoresis
3.6. Paper-Based Analytical Devices
3.7. Electrochemical Sensors
3.8. GC-MS
3.9. Summary
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
Abbreviations
AHNDMS | 4-amino-5-hydroxynaphthalene-2,7-disulphonic acid monosodium salt |
4-ATP | 4-aminothiophenol |
ATPE | aqueous two-phase extraction |
BGE | back ground electrolyte |
BIAMPA | batch injection analysis with multiple-pulse amperometric |
BPS | bathophenanthroline disulfonic acid |
BSA-Au NCs | bovine serum albumin stabilized gold nanoclusters |
CIA | capillary ion analysis |
CME | chemically modified electrode |
CNT | carbon nanotube |
CPE | cloud point extraction |
CE | capillary electrophoresis |
CZE | capillary zone electrophoresis |
DAD | diode array detection |
DLLME | dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction |
DESs | deep eutectic solvents |
DAN | 2,3-diaminonaphthalene |
ES | electrokinetic stacking |
EF | enrichment factor |
ER | extraction recovery |
EOF | electroosmotic flow |
FD | fluorescence detection |
FIA | flow injection analysis |
GC-MS | gas chromatography-mass spectrometry |
GC-NCI-MS | gas chromatography-negative chemical ionization-mass spectrometry |
GQDs | graphene quantum dots |
HP-β-CD | hydroxypropyl-β-cyclo-dextrin |
HPLC | high performance liquid chromatography |
HS-SDME | headspace Single drop liquid phase microextraction |
IC | ion chromatography |
ILs | ionic liquids |
LLE | liquid–liquid extraction |
LPME | liquid phase microextraction |
LC-MS/MS | liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry |
LOD | limit of detection |
LOQ | limit of quantification |
ME-EC | microchip electrophoresis method with electrochemical detection |
MNPS | magnetic nanoparticles |
NAT | 2,3-naphthotriazole |
NCs | nanoclusters |
NIR-CDs | near-infrared carbon dots |
NO2− | nitrite |
NO3− | nitrate |
NO | nitric oxide |
PADS | paper-based analytical devices |
PDA | photo-diode array |
PDMS | polydimethylsiloxane |
PLA | polylactic acid |
SIA | sequential injection analysis |
SPE | solid phase extraction |
SERS | surface enhancement Raman spectroscopy |
TMB | 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine |
µPADs | microfluidic paper-based analytical devices |
UPLC | ultra performance liquid chromatography |
[Ru(npy)([9]aneS3)(CO)](ClO4) | (Ru = Ruthenium; npy = 2-(1-naphthyl)pyridine, [9]aneS3 = 1,4,7-trithiacyclononane) |
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Pretreatment Methods | Derivatization Reagents | Analytical Technique | Analyte | Matrix | Recoveries | Precision | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Centrifugation and dilution | AHNDMS | Spectrophotometry | nitrite | saliva | 98% | <0.82% | [12] |
Centrifugation/Filtration | griess | Spectrofluorimetry | nitrite | water, sausage, soil | 95–108% | <2.88% | [13] |
Centrifugation/LLE | PFB-Br | GC-MS | nitrite nitrate | blood | 92–99% | <16.1% | [16] |
Protein precipitation | PFB-Br | GC-MS | nitrite nitrate | erythrocytes, plasma | 95–113% | 0.2–16.2% | [16] |
Centrifugation/ ultrafiltration | glutathione | LC-MS/MS | nitrite | plasma | 92–108% | <4.4% | [30] |
Protein precipitation | griess | HPLC-UV | nitrite nitrate | plasma | n.d. | n.d. | [31] |
Protein precipitation | / | IC-ED | nitrite | blood | 56–72% | <14.9% | [32] |
Protein precipitation | NO | CE- fluorescence | nitrite nitrate | plasma | 92–113% | <2.6% | [33] |
Protein precipitation | DAN | CE- fluorescence | nitrite | plasma | 85–112% | <1.1% | [34] |
Protein precipitation | arsenate | Spectrophotometry | nitrite nitrate | blood | 99–101% | <2.1% | [35] |
Protein precipitation/ATPE | OPE | Spectrofluorimetry | nitrite | urine | 93–105% | <1.7% | [28] |
Protein precipitation | I3 | Chemiluminescence | nitrite | blood | n.d. | n.d. | [36] |
Dilution/online SPE | DAN | LC-MS/MS | nitrite nitrate | urine | 99–112% | <7.4% | [26] |
Soak, vortex, ultrasonic, centrifugation/online SPE | DAN | LC-MS/MS | nitrite nitrate | feces | 99–112% | <7.4% | [26] |
LLE | PFB-Br | GC-MS | nitrite nitrate | urine | n.d. | n.d. | [14] |
LLE | PFB-Br | GC-MS | nitrite nitrate | urine | 91–113% | 0.92–19% | [15] |
LLE | DAN | GC-MS | nitrite | urine | 90–113% | <5.16% | [17] |
LLE | griess | HPLC-UV | nitrite nitrate | human plasma | 98–102% | <8.77% | [37] |
CPE | griess | HPLC-DAD | nitrite nitrate | plasma, urine | 90–98% | <4.19% | [18] |
CPE | griess | spectrophotometry | nitrite | urine, blood | 92–101% | n.d. | [19] |
CPE | griess | spectrophotometry | nitrite | meat, water | 91–103% | <3.4% | [20] |
HS-SDME | griess | pectrophotometry | Nitrite | water | 98–137% | <10.6% | [23] |
IL-DLLME | griess | HPLC-UV | nitrite | water and saliva | 96–107% | 4.1% | [24] |
VA-DLLME | griess | HPLC-UV | nitrite | saliva | 90–115% | <4.6% | [25] |
EME | / | IC-CD | nitrite | amniotic fluids | n.d. | <11% | [29] |
SPME | sodium cyclamate | μPD-OES | nitrite | simulated gastric content, serum | 96–103% | 4.1% | [27] |
LLE | LPME | SPE | SPME | Simple Sample Treatment |
---|---|---|---|---|
Evolution | ||||
CPE, ATPE | HS-SDME, DLLME, EME | On-line SPE | HS-SPME | Protein precipitation, dilute and shoot |
Advantages | ||||
Being reliable | Good purification effect | Less reagent consumption than LLE | High enrichment factor | Low cost |
Wide extraction range | High enrichment and extraction efficiency | No emulsification occurs during treatment | Each extraction head can be used more than 50 times | Time-saving |
Simple equipment and easy to operate | Less organic solvent at the level of a microliter | Simplified sample handing process | Different adsorption fibers meet a variety of application requirements | Easy accessibility |
Mild extraction conditions | Easy to automate with a low cost | High selectivity and reproducibility due to the use of highly efficient and selective adsorbents | Used with automatic sampler to ensure the accuracy of the experiment | Appropriate for simple and clean samples |
Disadvantages | ||||
Easily emulsifying and poor selectivity | The extraction efficiency is susceptible | Higher cost than LLE | Carry-over problems caused by repeated analysis with the same fiber | Limited ability to handle complex samples |
Large amount of organic solvent | Limited potential for automation and efficiency |
Methods | Matrix | Reagents | λmax (nm) | Linearity Range | Detection Limit (ng/mL) | Reaction Time (min) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
spectrophotometry | saliva samples | AHNDMS | 560 | 0.1 μg/mL–1.6 μg/mL | 7.5 | 2 | [12] |
spectrophotometry | urine, blood | griess | 490 | 10 ng/mL–400 ng/mL | 2.5 | n.d. | [19] |
spectrophotometry | blood samples | arsenomolybdneum blue | 840 | 2 μg/mL–10 μg/mL | 3 | 30 | [37] |
spectrophotometry | urine | [Ru(npy)([9]aneS3)(CO)](ClO4) | 483 | 1 µM–840 µM | 26.91 | 1 | [44] |
spectrofluorometry | urine | BSA-Au NCs | 660 | 1 μM–100 μM | 3.45 | 60 | [46] |
spectrofluorometry | urine | GQDs | 480 | 0.025 μg/mL–0.09 μg/mL | 0.373 | 5 | [47] |
spectrofluorometry | urine | NIR-CDs | 675 | 1 μM–50 μM | 3.864 | n.d. | [48] |
spectrofluorometry | urine | hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin | 568 | 5 ng/mL–1000 ng/mL | 1.5 | n.d. | [28] |
colorimetry | artificial urine | griess | n.d. | 0.78 μM–200 μM | 110.4 | 1 | [51] |
colorimetry | urine | TMB | 452 | 0.5 μM–30 μM | 6.9 | 1 | [55] |
Matrix | Analytes | Column | Mobile Phase | Detector | Preparation | Linear Range | LOD | LOQ | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
blood urine | nitrite nitrate | C18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 mm) | A: acetonitrile B: methanol C: 1%tetrabutylammonium hydroxide. gradient elution | UV | decolorization and protein precipitation, CPE | 10–1000 ng/mL (nitrite) 0.1–10 μg/mL (nitrate) | 1 ng/mL for nitrite; 0.1 μg/mL for nitrate | n.d. | [18] |
saliva | nitrite | VP-ODS column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) | methanol/water (90:10, v/v) isocratic elution | UV | IL-DLLME | 0.4–500.0 μg/L | 0.05 μg/L | 0.4 μg/L | [24] |
urine and saliva | nitrite | C18 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) | 95% methanol and 5% water isocratic elution | UV | vortex-assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction | 1–300 μg/L | 0.2 μg/L | 1 μg/L | [25] |
rat serum | nitrite nitrate | XBridge C18 (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 3.5 µm) | 15% (v/v) acetonitrile in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 10) isocratic elution | FD | centrifugation | 0.02–2.00 μM for nitrite: 0.3125–20 μM for nitrate | 0.003 μM for nitrite 0.083 mM for nitrate | 0.009 μM for nitrite; 0.250 μM for nitrate | [38] |
human plasma | nitrite nitrate | 120 CN (25 cm × 0.46 cm, 5 μm) | methanol and water (57.5:42.5, V:V) isocratic elution | UV | pre-column derivatization of nitrite anion using the Griess; nitrate with vanadium chloride (III) | 0.1–50 μM (nitrite) 1–500 μM (nitrate) | n.d. | 0.1 μM for nitrite | [37] |
serum | nitrite nitrate | POLAR-RP column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 4 µm) | A: acetonitrile B: double distilled–deionised water consisted of 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid gradient elution | FD | derivatization then LLE | 1–5000 ng/L (nitrite) 1–100 μg/L (nitrate) | 0.13 ng/L for nitrite; 0.19 ng/L for nitrate | 0.43 ng/L for nitrite; 0.58 ng/L for nitrate | [58] |
human saliva | nitrite nitrate | Phosphatidylcholine Column (4.6 mm × 150 mm, 10 µm) | 20 mM NaCl isocratic elution | DAD | dilution and centrifugation | 8.98–18.52 µg/mL (nitrate) 3.50–5.34 µg/mL (nitrate) | 4.56 ng/mL for nitrate; 4.21 ng/mL for nitrite | 15.21ng/mL for nitrate; 14.03 ng/mL for nitrite | [59] |
rabbit blood | nitrite nitrate | X Bridge C18 (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 2.5 μm) | A: tetrabutylammonium hydroxide 5 mM brought to pH 2.5 with sulfuric acid B: acetonitrile C: methanol gradient elution | UV | pre-column derivatization of nitrite anion using the Griess | 6–400 μg/L (nitrite) 0.2–200 μg/mL (nitrate) | 0.06 μg/mL for nitrate | 2 ng/mL for nitrite and 200 ng/mL for nitrate | [31] |
rat plasma | nitrite nitrate | An Acquity UPLC® BEH C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) | A: tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (12 mM), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (pH 7.0; 10 mM) B: consisted of tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (2.8 mM), methanol (30% v/v), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (pH 5.5; 100 mM). gradient elution | PDA | using filter plate to deprotein | 4–500 μM (nitrite) 6–400 μM (nitrate) | n.d. | 4 μM for nitrite; 6 μM for nitrate | [60] |
rat plasma/urine | nitrite nitrate | C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | methanol–water (containing 0.60 mM of phosphate salt and 2.5 mM TBAP) (2:98, V:V) isocratic elution | PDA | deproteinization with acetonitrile | 1–800 μM for nitrate and nitrite | 0.075 μM for nitrate | 0.25 μM for nitrate and nitrite | [61] |
Matrix | Analytes | Paper Material | Fabrication Technique | Derivatization | Analytical Range | LOD | LOQ | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
artificial saliva | nitrite | Whatman filter paper | a wax printing | Griess | 0.1–2.4 mg/dL | n.d. | n.d. | [70] |
saliva | nitrite | glass fiber | electrokinetically stacking | Griess | 0.075–1.0 μg/mL | 73 ng/mL | n.d. | [71] |
saliva | nitrite | Whatman filter paper | the laminating pouches were passed through the laminator | Griess | 5–250 μM | 0.05 μM | 0.17 μM | [74] |
saliva | nitrate | Whatman filter paper | the laminating pouches were passed through the laminator | Griess | 0.2–1.2 mM | 0.08 mM | 0.27 mM | [74] |
saliva | nitrite | cellulose filter paper | a wax printing | Griess | 1–100 μM | 10 μM | n.d. | [75] |
urine sample | nitrite | cellulose filter paper | an inexpensive home cutter printer and plastic adhesives | Griess | 5–100 μM | 2.34 μM | n.d. | [76] |
blood serum | nitrite | cellulose filter paper | an inexpensive home cutter printer and plastic adhesives | Griess | 5–600 μM | 4.35 μM | n.d. | [76] |
human urine samples | nitrite | Whatman filter paper | the laminating pouches were passed through the laminator | Griess | 0.14–1.0 mM | 0.04 mM | 0.14 mM | [77] |
blood plasma | nitrite | silicon substrate | an acoustics-based plasma separation device | Griess | 0–20 µM | 60 nM | n.d. | [78] |
Electrode | Modification | Method | Analytes | Linearity Range | LOD (nM) | Precision | Recovery | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pt | NaR–SOD1–CNT–PPy–Pt | CV | nitrite | 100 nM–1 mM | 50 nM | 3.57% | n.d. | [22] |
Pt | NaR–SOD1–CNT–PPy–Pt | CV | nitrate | 500 nM–10 mM | 200 nM | 2.98% | n.d. | [22] |
Pt | SOD1–CNT–PPy–Pt | CV | nitrite | 0.5–2000 μM | 0.5 ± 0.025 μM | n.d. | n.d. | [80] |
GCE | CDP–GS–MWCNTs | CV | nitrite | 5 µM–6.75 mM | 1.65 μM | <3.7% | 95.0% and 106.6% | [81] |
GCE | nano-Au/p-TA | DPV | nitrite | 15.9–277.0 µM | 0.89 μM | <2.3% | 91.0% and 109.0% | [82] |
GCE | La–MWCNTs | CA | nitrite | 0.40–0.71 mM | 103 nM | <4.2% | 101.6% and 101.7% | [83] |
GCE | Fe(III)P/MWCNTs | CV | nitrite | 1.00 μM–1.6 mM | 0.50 μM | <4.5% | 98.0% and 110.0% | [84] |
GCE | CTAB-GO/MWNT | DPV | nitrite | 5.0–800 μM | 1.5 µm | 2.50% | 99% and 105% | [85] |
ZnO-screen printed electrodes | CuCP | CV | nitrite | 100 nM–1 mM | 100 nM | n.d. | n.d. | [86] |
GCE | Fe3O4@Au@Cys/rGO | CV | nitrite | 0.03–344 and 344–2215 µM | 8 nm | <3.26% | 98.5–104% | [87] |
Ag/AgCl wire | A cobalt(II) tert-butyl salophen compound | CA | nitrite | 20–100 µM | 10 µm | <1% | n.d. | [88] |
SPCE | MWCNT | BIA-MPA | nitrite | 1–40 µM | 0.3 µM | <1.3% | 77–121% | [89] |
gold-gold microtrench electrode | silver | CA | nitrate | 200–1400 μM | 24 μM | <6.9% | 108% | [90] |
3D-printed electrode | graphene/PLA | BIA-MPA | nitrite | 0.5–250 µM | 0.03 µML | 1.10% | 70 and 110%. | [91] |
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Liu, G.; Guo, H.; Zhao, W.; Yan, H.; Zhang, E.; Gao, L. Advancements in Preprocessing and Analysis of Nitrite and Nitrate since 2010 in Biological Samples: A Review. Molecules 2023, 28, 7122. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28207122
Liu G, Guo H, Zhao W, Yan H, Zhang E, Gao L. Advancements in Preprocessing and Analysis of Nitrite and Nitrate since 2010 in Biological Samples: A Review. Molecules. 2023; 28(20):7122. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28207122
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Guojie, Honghui Guo, Wanlin Zhao, Hongmu Yan, Enze Zhang, and Lina Gao. 2023. "Advancements in Preprocessing and Analysis of Nitrite and Nitrate since 2010 in Biological Samples: A Review" Molecules 28, no. 20: 7122. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28207122